JOHN  A.  SEAVERNS 


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TUFTS   UNIVERSITY   LIBRARIES 


3   9090   013   415  415 


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Vcttnnary  Ubrwy 

Tufts  University 

Softool  of  Veterinary  Medtefne 

200  Westboro  R& 

North  Grafton.  MA  01536 


A    MANUAL 

OF 

COACHING 


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A    MANUAL 

OF 

COACHING 

FAIRMAN    ROGERS 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.B.LLPPL¥COTT    COMPANY 

XOINDOlsr:    36   SOUTHAMI^rON  STKEET,  COVE3STT    GARHEX 


Copyright.  i8i>« 
By  J.  K.  Lippincott  Company 


PRINTED   BY   J.   B.  MPPIXCOTT   COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA.  U.S.A. 


TO 
MY     FRIEND 

WILLIAM   G.  TIFFANY 

RECALLING 

MANY    PLEASANT    HOURS 

PASSED    WITH    HIM 

BOTH    ON    AND    OFF   A    COACH 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 
THE    COACH 


CHAPTER     I 

PAGES 

Development  of  the  Coach. — Simple  Farm  Wagon 
Carriage-Part.  Addition  of  the  Seats  and 
Body.  Early  American  '  Stage  Waggon.'  Use 
of  Springs.  English  Coach  at  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  Word  '  Tally-Ho'  erro- 
neously applied       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         i -i 5 

CHAPTER    II 

General  Character  of  a  Coach. — Distinction  be- 
tween Coach  and  Drag         .....       16-18 

CHAPTER    II  I 

Carriage-Part. — Axles,     Wheels,     Springs,     Pole, 

Lead-Bars        ........        19-60 

CHAPTER    IV 
Body. — Boots,     Driving-Seat,    Roof-Seats,    Painting      61-79 

CHAPTER    V 

Accessories. — Brake,  Skid,  Lamps,   Basket,  Awning, 

Tables,  Lunch-Boxes,  Tool-Box,  Aprons       .         .     80-101 

CHAPTER    VI 

Drag,  Mail-Coach,  Malle  Poste,  Diligence,  Break, 
Barouche  Landau,  Phaeton,  Jaunting  Car,  Pri- 
vate Omnibus,  Cape  Cart        .....    102-115 

ix 


X  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    VII 

PAGES 

American  Coach. — Constructive  Peculiarities,  Di- 
mensions .........    i 16-122 

CHAPTER    VIII 

Comparison   of    Coaches. — Care    of   a   Coach,    Cost 

of  Coaches 123-128 

CHAPTER    IX 

Weight  of  a  Coach. — Distribution  of  Weight,  Cen- 
tre  of   Gravity,  Effect  of  Centrifugal  Force  129-146 

CHAPTER   X 

Draught.. — Rolling  Friction,  Axle  Friction,  Total 
Resistance  to  Motion,  Traction,  Roads,  Systems 
of  Road  Making,  Action  of  Horse  in  Draught  147-193 

CHAPTER    XI 

Harness. — Details  of  Harness.  Bridle,  Bit,  Bear- 
ing-Rein, Collar,  Hames,  Traces,  Pad,  Reins, 
Cock  Horse  Harness,  Leather,  Mountings,  Spare 
Parts  to  carry,  Care  of  Harness        .         .         .    194-246 

CHAPTER    XII 

Harnessing. — PUtting-to,  Bearing-Reins,  Coupling- 
Reins,  Buckling  Reins  ......   247-273 

CHAPTER    XIII 

Different  Arrangements  of  Harness. — Tandem, 
Three  Abreast,  Pickaxe,  Unicorn,  Six  Horses, 
Posting,  Daumont 274-284 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER    XIV 

PAGBS 

Driving. — Getting  Up,  Starting,  Places  of  Reins 
in  Hand,  Seat,  Fingering,  Turning,  Stopping, 
Getting  Down,  Various  Methods  of  Finger- 
ing, American  Method,  Turning  and  Backing, 
Driving  Apparatus  ......   285-348 

CHAPTER    XV 

General    Observations    on    Driving. — Bitting,     and 

Handling  Horses    .......  349-379 

CHAPTER    XVI 

Horses    for    Coach    or    Drag.      Cost     of     Private 

Coaching  ........   380-389 

CHAPTER    XVII 
The  Whip  and  its  Use.     Salute    .....   390-414 

CHAPTER    XVIII 
The  Men.     Duties  and  Dress.      Coaching  Dress  .  415-426 

CHAPTER    XIX 

Public  Coaching. — Putting  a  Coach  on  the  Road, 
Length  of  Stages,  Time-Tables,  Time-Charts, 
Coachman's  and  Guard's  Duties  and  Dress, 
Changes   .........  427-464 

CHAPTER    XX 

Public      Coaching     generally. — Speed,      Distances 

Driven,  American  Coaching,  English  Coaching    .  465-483 

CHAPTER    XXI 
Coaching  Trips,  Coaching  Club  Trips  .         .         .  484-489 


Xll  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XXII 

PAGES 

The  Rule  of  the  Road  ......  490-501 


CHAPTER    XXIII 
Accidents        .........   502-509 

CHAPTER    XXIV 

Coaching    Clubs. — Rules    and    Customs     of    Meets, 

Judging  at  Shows,  Driving  Competitions       .         .   510-530 

CHAPTER    XXV 
Music  for  the  Horn       . 53 !— 532 

CHAPTER    XXVI 
Coaching  Medals  or  Tokens  .....   533-534 

CHAPTER    XXVII 
List  of  Books.     French  Names  for  Parts  of  Harness  535-565 

Index       ...........   567-579 


LIST   OF   PLATES 


PLATE  PAGE 

Coach  and  Horses.       {From  a  photograph.     Re-drawn  by 
Harry  Finney)      ....  Frontispiece 

A    May    Morning    in    the    Park.       {From    a  painting   by 

Thomas  Eakins) i 

I.   The  London  and  Oxford  Coach.      Phototype  of  a  Painting 
by    Cordery,    1792,   showing  the   Basket,   the  Front 
Boot  attached  to  the  Carriage-Part,  and  the  Suspension 
of  the  Body.      {Reproduced   by  the    kind  permission 
of  Messrs  DICKINSON  &*  Foster,  New  Bond  Street, 
London)    .  .  .         .  .  .  .  •  .10 

II.    Drawing    of   same  Coach.      {Half-inch  scale,   with  trans- 
parent sheet)     .  .  .  .  ■  ■  ■  .11 

III.  The  Carriage-Part  of  a  Coach  in  Isometrical  Perspective. 

{Scale  one-half  inch  to  the  foot)  .         .         .         .20 

IV.  Phototype  of  Two  Etchings  from  a  Political  Pamphlet  of 

1766,  showing  Coaches  of  the  period  .  .  71 

V.  Phototype  of  a  Print  of  Hogarth's,  'The  Inn  Yard,' 
1747,  showing  a  Coach  with  Passengers  on  Top,  and 
an  Old  Woman  in  the  Basket.  {One-half  the  size 
of  the  original  print)  .  .  .  .  .  ■      72 

VI.  Phototype  of  an  Etching  by  Rowlandson,  1793.  A 
Coach  with  Two  Extra  Horses,  ridden  by  a  Postilion  ; 
the  Traces  of  the  Leaders  attached  to  the  Traces  of 
the  Wheelers  and  not  to  Lead-Bars    .  .  .  -73 

VII.  Mail-Coachby  Guiet,  1892.  Built  for  Mr  W.  G.  Tiffany, 
on  the  lines  of  the  Old  English  Mail-Coach.  Used  on 
the  Trouville  trip  in  July  1892.  {Drawn  to  a  half-inch 
scale,  with  transparent  sheet)    .  .  .  .  .102 

xiii 


XIV  LIST    OF    PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

VIII.   French  Malle  Poste  of  the  period  of  1830.       {From  a 

drawing  by  Victor  Adam)  .  .  .  .104 

IX.   Swiss  Diligence  on  the  Julier  Pass,  1891  .  .  .    105 

X.    French    Posting    with     a     Private     Travelling-Carriage, 
early  part  of  the   19th  century.      {Reproduction  of 

a  drawing  by  Alfred  de  Drevx)        .  .  .107 

XI.    Char   a    bancs,    for    five    persons    and    two   servants. 
{Drawn    to    a    half-inch    scale,    with    transparent 

sheet)    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .110 

XII.  American  Stage-Coach,  as  made  by  The  Abbot  Down- 
ing Company,  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  generally 
known  as  a  Concord  Coach.  [Drawn  to  a  half- 
inch  scale,  with  transparent  sheet )  .  .  .116 

XIII.  Concord  Coach,  rear  view.      {Half-inch  scale)        .  .116 

XIV.  Concord    Coach,    Plan    of    Carriage-Part.       {Half-inch 

scale)    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .116 

XV.  Heavy  Concord  Coach,  as  sent  to  the  West,  to  Africa, 
and  to  Australia.  {Phototype  from  an  original 
photograph)  .  .  .  .  .  .  .116 

XVI.    Light  Concord  Coach,  as  used  in  the  White  Mountains. 

{Phototype  from  an  original  photograph)         .         .    117 

XVII.  Public-Coach,  by  Brewster  &  Co.,  of  Broome  Street, 
New  York,  The  '  Vivid, '  used  on  the  road  between 
Philadelphia  and  New  York.  {Drawn  to  a  half- 
inch  scale,  with  transparent  sheet)  .  .  .124 

XVIII.  Standard  Park-Drag,  by  Brewster  &  Co.,  of  Broome 
Street,  New  York.  {Drawn  to  a  half-inch  sea/e, 
with  transparent  sheet)  .         .         .         .         .124 

XIX.    Public-Coach,  by  Guiet  &  Co.,    Paris.      {Drawn  to  a 

half-inch  scale,  with  transparent  sheet)  .  .124 

XX.  Drag,  by  Barker  &  Co.,  London.  Built  for  the 
Author  in  1873.  {Drawn  to  a  half-inch  scale, 
with  transparent  sheet)  .         .         .         .         -124 


LIST    OF    PLATES  XV 

PLATE  PAGE 

XXI.   Front  and    Rear  Views  of   same  Drag.       {Half-inch 

scale)  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .124 

XXII.   Public-Coach,  by  F.  &  R.  Shanks,  London.      {Drawn 

to  a  half-inch  scale,  with  transparent  sheet}  .    125 

XXIII.  Tipping  Angles  of  a  Coach         .  .  .  .  .134 

XXIV.  Cock  Horse  Harness  ......    236 

XXV.    Lead-Rein  passed  through  Terrets      ....    249 

XXVI.    Bitting  and  Coupling  Diagram   .....  270 

XXVII.    Position  on  the  Box   .......  302 

XXVIII.    Turning  Diagrams     .......  340 

XXIX.    Team  for  Drag 380 

XXX.    Half-bred  Mare  'Josephine' 381 

XXXI.    The  Salute 414 

XXXII.    Time-Chart 444 

XXXIII.  Lead-Rein  passed  through  Terrets       ....  460 

XXXIV.  Pole  and  Bars  on  front  of  Coach          .          .          .          .  517 
XXXV.   Medals 534 


The  Title-Page  Vignette  is  from  a  painting  by  Harry  Finney. 

The  Wood  Engravings  of  Harness  and  of  Hands  are  by  James  D. 
Cooper,  of  London. 

The  Five-Horse  Vetturino  (Fig.  131)  is  from  an  original  drawing 
by  G.  La  Rocque,  of  Paris. 


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A  MANUAL  OF  COACHING 


THE     COACH 

CHAPTER    I 
DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    COACH 

The  History  and  Evolution  of  the  Coach  *  will 
be  here  treated  of  only  so  far  as  it  is  necessary  to 
assist  the  reader  to  understand  the  general  con- 
struction of  a  coach  before  we  proceed  to  details. 

Those  who  wish  to  study  the  subject  at  length 
are  referred  to  Thrupp's  History  of  Coaches,  to 
Stratton's  The  World  on  Wheels,  and  to  Adams's 
English  Pleasure  Carriages,  which  give  much  that 
is  interesting  on  the  subject,  including  copious  ex- 
tracts from  earlier  writers  ;  and  also  to  the  other 
authorities  named  in  the  '  List  of  books'  given  in 
Chapter  XXVII.,  where  will  be  found  the  full  titles 
of  the  books  referred  to  in  the  text. 

The  earliest  vehicle  which  bears  any  resemblance 
to  a  coach  (its  predecessors  being   merely  cars  on 

*  The  word  '  coach,'  always  with  nearly  the  same  sound,  is  found 
in  almost  all  European  languages  during  the  last  four  centuries.  It 
is  variously  spelled  cache,  earache,  kutscJie,  kaets,  katsi.  In  France 
the  name  was  also  applied  to  a  passenger  boat. 

I 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH 


CH.   I 


Fig.  i, 


two  wheels)  is  the  farm  wagon  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans which  still  exists,  with  but  little  change,  in 
almost  all  agricultural  countries.  It  consists  of  a 
hind  axle  with  its  two  wheels,  to  which  the  perch 
is  attached,  and  a  front  axle,  with  usually  somewhat 
smaller  wheels,  so  connected  by  a  bolt  to  the  front 
end  of  the  perch  as  to  turn  about  it  (Fig.  i). 
In  order  to  make  a  rig-id    connection   between  the 

ij.  hind  axle  and  the 
J  perch,  two  pieces, 
called  hounds,  or 
wings,  are  fast- 
ened to  the  perch 
and  to  the  axle, 
or,  in  ruder  con- 
structions, a  forked  branch  of  a  tree,  all  in  one 
piece,  which  rests  upon  the  top  of  the  perch,  sup- 
plies their  place.  If  it  is  desirable  to  be  able  to 
change  the  length  of  the  wagon,  the  perch  is  made 
to  slide  through  the  hind  axle,  and  has  in  it  a 
number  of  holes,  through  any  one  of  which  a  bolt 
will  fasten  it  and  the  hounds  together.  The  front 
end  of  the  perch  is  firmly  attached  at  right  angles 
to  a  bed  or  transom,  somewhat  shorter  than  the 
front  axle,  upon  which  it  rests,  being  connected  with 
the  axle  by  a  bolt  (perch-bolt  or  king-bolt),  which 
permits  the  axle  to  turn  underneath  the  bed.  The 
pole  or  tongue,  fastened  to  the  axle,  completes  the 
simplest  form  of  wagon.  If  it  is  intended  for  one 
horse,  a  pair  of  shafts  takes  the  place  of  the  pole. 


CH. I  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH  3 

A  simple  attachment  of  the  pole  to  the  axle  being 
deficient  in  strength,  two  hounds  or  futchells  are 
added,  fastened  to  the  axle  near  its  ends  and  run- 
ning out  on  the  pole  a  short  distance,  and,  in  order 
to  support  the  pole  more  efficiently,  their  hinder 
ends,  prolonged,  are  connected  by  a  cross  bar,  the 
sway-bar,  which  bears  against  the  under  side  of  the 
perch,  and  balances  the  weight  of  the  pole.  Some- 
times the  futchells  are  fastened  directly  to  each 
other  in  front,  and  the  end  of  the  pole,  being  forked, 
is  attached  to  them  by  a  bolt.  In  this  case,  the 
point  of  the  pole  must  be  supported  by  the  harness, 
as  it  is  in  a  trotting  wagon.  For  the  purpose  of 
attaching  the  horses  to  the  wagon,  a  double-tree 
rests  on  the  pole  in  front  of  the  futchells,  and  is 
secured  to  it  by  a  pin  which  permits  it  to  turn  ;  to 
this  double-tree  are  attached  two  swingle-trees.* 
Near  the  ends  of  the  hind  axle,  two  vertical  stand- 
ards are  firmly  fixed,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  bed 
in    front    are    similar    ones.      Boards    laid    between 


*  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  proper  spelling  of  this  word. 
Bartlett,  in  his  Dictionary  of  Americanisms,  says  that  swingle-tree 
is  vulgar  for  single-tree,  but  Skeat  in  his  Etymological  Dictionary 
says,  under  Swingle-tree,  '  Corruptly  called  single-tree,  whence  the 
'term  double-tree  has  arisen  to  keep  it  company.  "A  single-tree  is 
'  fixed  upon  the  end  of  another  cross-piece  called  the  double-tret, 
•  when  two  horses  draw  abreast,"  Haldeman  (in  Webster).  Middle 
'  English,  sivingle-tre,  spelled  swyngletre  in  Fitzherbert  On  Hus- 
'  bandry.  The  word  tree  here  means  a  piece  of  timber  as  in  axle- 
'  tree.  The  word  swingle  means  a  "  swing-er, "  a  thing  that  swings  ; 
'  so  named  from  the  swinging  motion,  etc' 


4  DEVELOPMENT   OF    THE    COACH  CH.  I 

these,  on  the  axle  and  on  the  bed,  form,  the  floor, 
and  other  boards  fastened  vertically  against  them, 
form  the  sides  of  a  body.  A  wagon  of  this  kind, 
sometimes  covered  by  a  canopy,  was  undoubtedly 
the  first  four-wheeled  vehicle  in  which  people  were 
carried. 

The  next  advance  was  to  suspend  seats  by  means 
of  straps  attached  to  the  sides,  whereby  more  com- 
fort could  be  had  than  by  sitting  on  the  rigid  car- 
riage-part ;  wagons  thus  arranged  can  be  seen  at 
the  present  time  in  Switzerland. 

Finally,  a  '  body,' distinct  from  the  carriage-part, 
was  suspended  from  the  points  of  the  four  stand- 
ards, the  fixed  body  having  been  removed,  and  this 
form  of  carriage  remained  in  use  for  a  lonof  time, 
as  is  shown  in  prints  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  i  7th 
century. 

About  1660  (Thrupp,  p.  43),  the  'Berlin'  was  in- 
vented in  Germany.  In  this,  the  floor  of  the  body 
was  rounded  and  rested  on  long  leather  straps, 
called  thorough-braces,  which  ran  from  one  stand- 
ard to  the  other,  and  the  under-carriage  was  fre- 
quently made  with  two  parallel  perches  for  strength 
and  stiffness.  The  coachman's  seat  was  on  the 
carriage-part,  and  not  attached  to  the  body. 

We  have  now  reached  the  form  of  carriage  which 
lasted  until  late  in  the  1  8th  century,  and  which  still 
exists  in  the  modern  American  'Concord  coach,' 
with  the  modification  of  having  the  coachman's  seat 
placed  on  the  body  instead  of  on  the  carriage-part. 


CH. I  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH  5 

It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  the  American  coach 
was  invented  especially  for  use  on  the  early,  rough 
American  roads  ;  but  it  is  evidently  the  European 
vehicle  of  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  arrested 
in  its  development,  because  the  condition  of  the 
roads  in  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where 
coaches  were  used,  resembled  the  conditions  exist- 
ing at  that  time  in  Europe. 

In  America,  the  vehicle  called  the  'stage-waggon,' 
which  preceded  the  coach,  was  evidently  evolved 
from  the  carrier's  wagon,  keeping  its  essential  form 
but  being  much  lighter. 

There  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  copied  from  an  Amer- 
ican   newspaper    of     1759,    a    'stage-waggon'    run- 


Fig.  2. 

ning  between  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  Fig. 
3  is  from  a  paper  of  1 8 1 2  representing  a  '  stage' 
on  the  same  road,  and  shows  the  same  general 
form,  improved  after  an  interval  of  fifty-three 
years. 

The  '  Concord  coach,'  which  succeeded  this,  was 
an  adaptation  of  the  private  coach,  or  chariot,  to  the 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH 


CH.  I 


purposes  of  the  road.  In  England,  public-coaches 
were,  from  the  first,  direct  copies  of  the  private 
carriage,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  Fig.  4  with 
Plates  I.  and  II. 


Fig.  3. 


Engravings    and   pictures,  and  also   the   descrip- 
tions,  show  that   the  driving-seat  remained   on  the 

carriage-part,  and  with- 
out any  springs,  until 
very  near  the  end  of 
the  1 8th  century.  No 
drawing,  such  as  often 
headed  the  advertise- 
ment of  a  regular 
stao-e  -  coach      in     the 


Fig.  4. 


early  American  days,  has  come  under  my  observa- 
tion, in  which  the  driving-seat  is  not  on  the  body 
of  the  coach  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  change 
was  made  in  America,  since  there  are  no  draw- 
ings of  English  carriages  with  thorough-braces,  and 
with  the  box  on  the  body  ;  so  long  as  thorough- 
braces  were  used,  the  box  was  on  the  carriage- 
part. 


CH.  I  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH  7 

Mr  Warde,  of  Squerries,  is  credited  by  'Nimrod,' 
in  his  Essays,  reprinted  in  Malet  (p.  249*),  with 
having  induced  the  proprietors  of  the  Manchester 
'  Telegraph'  to  put  the  box  on  springs,  which,  '  Nim- 
rod' says,  '  was  not  the  case  when  I  first  mounted 
them.'  As  '  Nimrod'  was  born  in  1778,  it  was  prob- 
ably about  1798  that  he  -first  mounted  them,'  and 
that  would  fix  the  date  of  the  use  of  springs  under 
the  driving-seat  as  being  early  in  the  19th  century. 
It  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  the  driving-seat  was 
separately  placed  on  springs  ;  it  was  probably  at- 
tached, therefore,  to  the  body,  which  was  already  on 
springs,  and  thus  led  to  the  substitution  of  steel  for 
leather  suspension. 

The  reproduction  in  Malet's  Annals  of  the  Road 
(p.  15),  of  an  advertisement  of  the  Edinburgh  Stage- 
Coach  of  1754,  is  headed  by  a  cut  which  shows  the 
driving-seat  as  being  on  the  body  ;  but  this  cut  is 
not  an  accurate  copy  of  the  original  and  does  not 
show  the  construction  of  the  coach  of  that  period. 
The  photographic  reproduction  of  an  advertisement 
in  The  Edinburgh  Courant  of  May  13,  1754  (given 
on  p.  8),  shows  a  vehicle  resembling  a  private  car- 
riaee  much  more  than  a  coach,  but  not  unlike  the 
coach  shown  in  Plate  IV.  The  driving-seat  is  evi- 
dently on  the  under-carriage. 


*  These  Essays  were  originally  published  in  the  Sporting  Maga- 
zine in  1822-1827.  'Nimrod'  (J.  C.  Apperley)  left  The  Sporting 
Magazine  in  1829. 


8 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH 


CH.   I 


MfiCagMM*  J~  —  —  ■<•— -y— --- 


THE  EDINBURGH  STAGE-COACH, 
for  the  better  Accommodation  of  Paffen- 
gers,  will  be  altered  to  a  new  genteel  Two-end 
Glafs  Machine,  hung  on  Steel  Springs,  exceeding 
light  and  eafy,  to  go  in  ten  Days  in  Summer  and 
twelve  in  Winter,  to  fet  out  the  firft  Tuefday  in 
March,  and  continue  it  from  Hofea  Eaft gate's,  the 
Coach  and  Horfes  in  Dean-ftreet,  Soho/  LON- 
DON, and  from  John  Somervell's  in  the  Canon 
gate,  Edinburgh,  every  other  Tuefday,  and  meet 
at  Burrow-bridge  on  Saturday  Night,  and  fet  out 
from  thence  on  Monday  Morning,  and  get  to 
London  and  Edinburgh  on  Friday.  In  the  Win- 
terao  fet  out  from  London  and  Edinburgh  every 
other  Monday  Morning,  and  to  get  to  Burrow- 
bridge  on  Saturday  Night;  and  to  fet  out  from 
thence  on  Monday  Morning,  and  get  to  London 
and  Edinburgh  on  Saturday  Night.  PaiTengers  to 
pay  as  ufual.  Perform'd,  if  God  permits,  by  your 
dutiful  Servant,  HOSEA.  EASTG AT  E. 

Care  is  taken  of  fmall  Parcels,  paying  according 
to  their  Value. 


Cross  (vol.  ii.,  p.  70)  speaks  of  the  change  from 
the  old,  heavy,  six-inside  coaches,  'with  the  boot 
'  fixed  on  the  fore-axle,  and  a  large  basket  on  the 


CH.   I 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH 


'hind,'  to  the  'new  and  elegant  Telegraph  coaches,' 
as  occurring  just  before  1816,  as  well  as  the  date 
can  be  made  out  from  the  context. 

The  suspension  of  the  bodies  of  carriages,  other 
than  stage-coaches,  by  four  leather  braces,  is  con- 
tinued to  the  present  day,  but  always  in  connection 
with  springs.  As  early  as  1669  springs  were  tried, 
but  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
come  into  general  use  for  many 
years  later,  probably  not  until 
after  1 700,  when  the  standards, 
which  held  the  straps  on  which 
the  body  was  hung,  were  made 
of  steel  and  were  called  whip- 
springs  (Fig.  5,  A).  Small 
springs  were  also  used  to  attach 
the  ends  of  the  straps  to  the 
body,  as  at  B.  About  1790,  the  whip-spring  was 
replaced  by  the  C-spring  (Fig.  5,  C),  which  is  still 
used  in  expensive  carriages. 

Down  to  1805,  all  carriages  had  perches,  but  in 
that  year  the  elliptic  spring  was  invented  in  Eng- 
land by  Elliot,  and  since  that  time  the  majority 
of  carriages  are  made  without  perches,  although 
coaches  still  have  them. 

Plate  I.,  which  is  a  reproduction  of  a  picture  by 
Cordery,  1792,  shows  the  coach  as  hung  on  whip- 
springs  by  short  straps  attached  to  pump-handles 
projecting  from  the  bottom  of  the  body,  as  in  the 
present  C-spring  carriage.     The  front  boot  is  built 


Fig.  5. 


IO  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH  CH.  I 

up  solidly  from  the  front  end  of  the  perch,  and 
the  top  of  it  forms  the  driving-seat.  The  whip 
springs  are  fastened  to  what  might  be  called  the 
platform  of  the  carriage-part.  To  prevent  too  much 
play,  and  consequent  breakage  of  the  springs,  their 
tops  are  attached  in  front,  to  the  boot,  by  straps,  and 
behind,  to  the  upper  ends  of  standards  which  are 
built  up  on  the  platform.  Straps  from  the  body  to 
the  same  points  also  prevent  too  much  motion  of 
the  body.  The  space  on  the  platform  between  the 
springs  and  between  the  standards  is  occupied  by 
a  basket,  in  which  was  carried  either  merchandise 
or  passengers.  From  the  ends  of  the  splinter-bar, 
iron  stays  ran,  outside  of  the  wheels  to  the  ends  of 
the  axles, — an  arrangement  not  uncommon  even 
now,  in  heavy  vehicles  in  Europe.  This  particular 
coach  has  a  narrow  body,  accommodating  only  four 
inside,  and  the  roof-seats  do  not  overhang  the 
body. 

Plate  II.  is  a  drawing-  of  this  same  coach  to  a  half- 
inch  scale  ;  it  may  be  compared  with  the  other  half- 
inch  scale  drawings  on  Plates  XVII.  to  XXII.  The 
transparent  sheet,  printed  in  red,  can  be  torn  out  so 
as  to  be  superposed  on  the  black  plates. 

Shortly  after  1 800,  the  bodies  of  coaches,  and  of 
some  travelling  carriages,  were  lengthened  by  the 
addition,  as  a  part  of  the  construction  of  the  body, 
of  a  front  and  hind  boot,  the  whole  being  hung  on 
the  springs  ;  the  coachman's  seat  and  the  rumble 
for  servants  were  on  the  boots,  as  is  shown  in  the 


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CH.   I 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COACH 


I  I 


drawing  of  a  '  Britszka'  of  1825  (Fig.  6).  This 
brings  us  to  what  is,  practically,  the  present  form  of 
the  coach,  in  which  the  C-springs  and  leather  braces 
are  replaced  by  the  stiffer  platform  springs. 


•     * 


Fig.  6. 


In  a  general  treatise  on  carriages,  the  name 
'  coach'  is  applied  to  any  vehicle  on  four  wheels 
with  a  body  more  or  less  closed,  but  in  the  present 
Manual  it  will  be  used  in  the  narrower  signification 
of  a  four-in-hand  coach  of  the  type  used  in  England 
and  America.  We  find  the  road-coach  called  in 
the  last  century,  '  stage-  waggon,'  'stage-coach,'  and 
sometimes,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, '  drag.'  Drag  now  means  a  coach  for  private 
driving,  and  the  word  will  be  employed  in  that  sense 
in  the  following  pages,  public-coach  being  used  to 
mean  a  coach  which  runs  over  a  regular  route  at 
fixed  hours,  and  carries  passengers  for  pay.  The 
term  stage-coach  was  originally  applied  to  a  coach 
which  went  over  a  number  of  stages  on  the  road, 
and  not  to  a  coach  which  ran  only  a  short  distance. 
As  an  example  of  the  curious  changes  of  language, 


12  TALLY-HO  CH.   I 

it  may  be  worth  noting  that,  in  New  York,  it  became 
the  custom  to  call  an  omnibus,  which  ran  only  over 
a  short  route,  a  '  stage  ;'  first  applying  an  improper 
name,  'stage-coach,'  and  then  dropping  the  char- 
acteristic term  and  retaining  the  other  designation 
only. 

The  popular  word  in  America  for  a  four-in-hand 
coach:  'Tally-ho,'  is  entirely  incorrect,  and  should 
not  be  used.  It  originated  thus:  When,  in  1876, 
Colonel  Delancey  Kane  first  put  on  his  road-coach 
from  the  Brunswick  Hotel,  New  York,  to  Pelham, 
he  named  it  the  'Tally-ho.'  This  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  old  English  custom  of  giving  names 
to  coaches,  just  as,  for  many  years,  engines  were 
named  on  railroads.  'Tally-ho,'  'Tantivy,'  'Light- 
ning,' 'Meteor,'  'Defiance,'  'Quicksilver,'  'Inde- 
pendent,' were  favourite  names,  and  were  used  in 
advertising  the  coaches,  and  in  speaking  of  them  on 
the  road.  Some  newspapers,  in  writing  about  the 
Pelham  coach,  called  it  the  'Tally-ho,'  and  others, 
less  well  informed,  called  all  four-horse  coaches 
'Tally-ho's.'  Many  mild  protests  were  made,  with- 
out avail,  by  coaching  men,  against  such  an  incor- 
rect expression,  and  finally  an  American  Dictionary, 
the  Century,  published  in  1891,  embalmed  and  per- 
petuated the  error  as  follows  : 

'Tally-ho  (tal'i-ho)  [< tally-ho,  inter]".].  1.  A  cry 
'of  "Tally-ho."  See  the  interjection.  2.  A  four-in- 
'  hand  pleasure-coach  ;  probably  so  called  from  the 
'  horn  blown  on  it. 


CH.  I  LE  MAIL    COACH  I 


J 


'  "The  mail  still  announced  itself  by  the  merry  notes  of  the 
*  horn  ;  the  hedge-cutter  or  the  rick-thatcher  might  still  know  the 
'  exact  hour  by  the  unfailing  yet  otherwise  meteoric  apparition  of 
'the  pea-green  Tally-ho  or  the  yellow  Independent. — George 
'Eliot,  Felix  Holt."  ' 

Webster's  Dictionary  (1892)  gives  the  same  er- 
roneous definition.  Worcester's  last  edition  is  cor- 
rect, and  gives  only  the  proper  meaning  of  the  word. 

After  having  been  for  so  long  a  time  thus  popu- 
larly used,  the  expression  will  probably  survive,  but 
coaching  men,  at  least,  should  avoid  it. 

In  somewhat  the  same  way,  the  coach  has  in 
France  come  to  have  the  name  :  '  Le  Mail.'  A  mail- 
coach,  as  will  be  described  later,  is  different  from  a 
staee-coach,  and  it  is  the  sta«-e-coach  which  has  been 
copied  for  pleasure  purposes  ;  not  the  mail-coach. 

Mortimer  d'Ocagne  {Le  Mail  Coach  e?i  France, 
p.  3)  says  :  '  At  the  outset  we  must  make  a  com- 
'  ment  upon  the  title  of  this  little  sketch.  One 
'  should  not  say,  a  mail  coach.  In  reality,  the  mail  is 
'  the  carriage  which  carries  the  mails,  but  the  use 
'  of  this  name  has  become  general  in  France,  and 
'  every  one  says,  a  mail ;  the  sporting  journals  them- 
4  selves  often  speak  of  the  meet  of  the  mails.  We 
'  will  not  assume  an  authority  to  change  this  way  of 
'speaking,  but  we  must  note  its  inaccuracy.'* 


*  '  Des  la  premiere  ligne  il  nous  faut  faire  une  reserve  contre  le  titre 
'  meme  de  cette  notice.  On  ne  devrait  pas  dire  un  mail  coach.  En 
'  effet,  le  mail,  c'est  la  malle,  la  malle  poste  ;  mais  1' usage  est  pris  en 
*  France  et  tout  le  monde  dit  un  mail  ;  les  journaux  de  sport  eux- 


14  .  TALLY-HO  CH.  I 

Since  '  Tally-ho'  and  '  Tantivy'  are  names  fre- 
quently given  to  coaches,  their  origin  is  interesting 
to  the  coaching  man. 

Hunter's  Encyclopedic  Dictionary  gives,  '  Tally- 
'  ho  [Norman  French —  Taillis  -  an  =  to  the  cop- 
'pice],  The  huntsman's  cry  to  urge  on  his  hounds.' 

Lc  haiit  taillis  is  a  wood  of  twenty-five  to  thirty 
years'  growth  and  presumably  'cut  high,'  or  with  no 
underwood,  so  that  the  hunted  animal,  on  running 
into  it,  can  be  plainly  seen.  In  fox-hunting,  it  is 
when  the  fox  is  viewed,  that  the  cry  is  used. 

The  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy  gives 
'  Taiaut  as  being  the  cry  of  the  hunter  when  he 
views  the  deer. 

'Taiaut'  is  given  in  old  French  books  on  Hunting 
in  the  same  sense,  and  is  also  used  as  a  verb  ;  just  as 
in  English,  one  is  said  to  '  tally-ho'  the  fox.  '  Taillis- 
au'  or  '  taillis-haut'  are  not  given  as  hunting  cries. 

Since  tally-ho  is  a  true  fox-hunting  expression,  it 
is  considered  proper,  when  a  coach  bears  that  name, 
to  have  a  fox  or  a  fox's  head  on  the  harness,  unless 
there  is  a  monogram  Gr  crest.  If  the  coach  is 
named  'Tantivy,'  something  belonging  to  a  deer  is 
used,  since  that  term  is  associated  with  stag-hunt- 
ine  ;  but  the  connection  is  not  so  clear  as  is  that  of 
tally-ho  with  the  fox. 


'  memes  parlent  souvent  de  la  reunion  des  mails.  Nous  n'avons  pas 
'la  pretention  de  modifier  cette  faqon  de  dire;  nous  en  signalons 
'  toutefois  1' inexactitude.' 


CH.  I  TANTIVY  1 5 

No  word  resembling  tantivy,  either  in  sound  or  in 
spelling,  occurs  in  the  nine  hundred  pages  of  the 
great  work  on  Hunting  by  the  Comte  de  Bey,  writ- 
ten in  1635.* 

There  are  two  possible  derivations  of  this  word ; 
it  is  not  in  the  French  dictionaries  except  in  that 
of  Chambaud,  1805,  and  seems  to  be  of  English  ori- 
gin ;  its  usual  meaning  is  '  at  full  speed.'  Chambaud 
gives  it  as,  'Tantivy,  au  grand  galop.' 

The  following  quotations  give  both  derivations  : 

Hunter's  Encyclopedic  Dictionary  gives  '  Tantivy 
'  [from  the  note  of  a  hunting  horn],  swiftly,  a  rapid, 
'  violent  gallop.     As  a  verb,  to  hurry  off.' 

Todd's  Johnson's  Dictionary  gives  '  Tantivy,  from 
'  the  note  of  a  hunting  horn,  so  expressed  in  articu- 
Tate  sounds.  From  tanta  vi,  says  Skinner,  Dr. 
'Johnson.  The  old  French  language  has  tentiveux 
'to  denote  an  eager  person  "homme  qui  est  tente 
'par  tout  ce  qu'il  voit :  avide  etc."  To  ride  tantivy 
'  is  to  ride  at  great  speed.' 

Godefroy,  Dictionnaire  de  V  ancienne  langue  fran- 
caise,  gives  '  Tentir :  faire  entendre  un  son  "  Les 
'  cors  as  bouces  commencent  a  tentir."  Retentir 
is  from  tentir,  and  this  again  from  the  Latin,  tinnire, 
to  sound. 

*  Les  Meuttes  et  Veneries  de  Jean  de  Ligniville,  Chevalier, 
Comte  de  Bey.  Introduction  et  notes  par  Ernest  Jullien  et 
Henri  Gallice.     Paris,  1892.     2  vols,  quarto. 


I  6  CH.   II 


CHAPTER    II 
GENERAL    CHARACTER    OF   A    COACH 

As  at  present  built,  either  for  public  or  for  private 
use,  the  coach  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  which 
existed  at  the  time  when  coaches  in  England  were 
superseded  by  railroads. 

A  distinction  is  made,  however,  between  a  drag, 
built  for  private  use,  and  a  road-coach, *  or  public- 
coach,  intended  to  carry  always  a  full  load,  and  to  be 
driven  at  a  high  speed  over  long  routes.  The  drag 
is  made  lighter  than  the  coach,  but  between  the  two 
extremes  of  weight  and  of  finish  there  are  many 
grades,  depending  upon  the  taste  of  the  owner. 

Some  men,  living  in  the  country  and  liking  to 
drive  long  distances,  use  their  coaches  like  road- 
coaches,  at  high  speeds  and  with  changes  of  horses  ; 
certainly  the  most  '  sporting'  way  of  doing  the  thing. 
A  coach  for  this  purpose  should  be  built  almost 
exactly  like  a  public-coach.  Other  men  use  their 
coaches  only  about  home  or,  if  they  live  in  a  city, 
principally  in  park  driving,  with  small  loads,  at  a 
moderate  pace,  on  good  roads,  and  such  a  coach 
should  be  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  lighter  than 
a  public-coach,  and  may  be  slightly  ornamented  with 

*  Road-coach  has  come  to  be  an  accepted  name  for  a  public-coach 
or  a  stage-coach,  but  public-coach  is  more  strictly  correct. 


CH.  II     GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  A  COACH        1 7 

plain  mouldings  worked  on  the  edges  of  the  under- 
carriage timbers,  and  with  a  little  carving  on  the 
ends  of  the  splinter-bar  and  the  futchells,  which  in 
a  public-coach  are  always  perfectly  plain. 

There  are,  however,  between  the  two  kinds  of 
coaches,  some  essential  differences  which  should  be 
observed.  In  a  public-coach,  the  rumble  is  supported 
on  the  hind  boot  by  a  solid  wooden  bench,  and  seats 
three  or  four  persons,  including  the  guard  ;  in  a 
drag,  the  rumble  holds  only  two  persons,  usually 
the  grooms,  and  is  supported  by  open  irons.  It  is 
quite  easy  to  have  both  kinds  of  rumble  fitted  to  a 
coach,  so  that  it  can  be  used  either  as  a  drag  or  as 
a  public-coach.  On  a  road-coach  there  is  an  iron 
rod  running;  between  the  side-irons  of  the  roof-seats 
along  both  sides  of  the  coach,  and  this  usually  has 
a  net  of  leather  straps  (see  Plates  XVIII.  and 
XIX.),  connecting  it  with  the  roof,  so  that  wraps 
thrown  on  the  roof  cannot  fall  off.  This  net  should 
be  omitted  in  a  drag,  although  for  long  trips  one 
may  be  made  with  buckles  in  such  a  way  that  it  can 
be  taken  off.  The  door  of  the  hind  boot  of  a  public- 
coach  is  hinged  on  the  off  side  ;  that  of  a  drag  is 
hinged  at  the  bottom  (see  Fig.  36).  The  public- 
coach  is  not  trimmed  inside,  but  is  usually  finished 
in  hard  wood.  This  hard-wood  finish  is,  however,  a 
modern  fashion,  as  in  old  coaching  days  the  inside 
passengers  paid  higher  fares  than  those  outside  and 
were  made  as  comfortable  as  possible.  The  interior 
of  a  drag  is  trimmed  plainly  in  morocco,  cloth,  or 


1 8        GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  A  COACH     CH.  II 

cord.  The  general  finish  of  a  drag  may  be  higher 
than  that  of  a  public-coach  without  being  elaborate  ; 
it  should  be  about  the  finish  of  a  plain,  first-class 
brougham. 

The  reader  should  be  reminded  that  a  drag-  is  a 
sporting  vehicle  ;  it  is  not  at  all  a  voiture  de  luxe, 
and  in  all  its  appointments  it  should  retain  the  sport- 
ing character.  Elaborate  harness  or  unnecessary 
ornament  of  any  kind  about  a  drag  is  in  bad  taste  ; 
a  drag  is  nothing  more  than  a  well  '  turned  out,' 
neat,  public-coach,  and  the  showy  features  of  a  lady's 
carriage  should  be  avoided. 

Down  to  about  1870,  drags  were  made  to  take 
only  three  persons  on  each  roof-seat,  and  these  seats, 
like  those  of  a  mail-coach,  did  not  extend  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  roof;  now  they  are  always  made  long 
enough  to  accommodate  four  persons. 

After  these  general  indications  of  the  difference 
between  the  two  classes  of  coach,  we  will  consider 
the  parts  of  a  coach. 


CH.  Ill 


19 


CHAPTER    III 

CARRIAGE-PART 

The  carriage-part  of  a  coach  (see  Plate  III.)  con- 
sists of  the  axles,  the  perch  (sometimes  called  the 
reach),  the  futchells,  the  bed  or  transom,  and  certain 
minor  parts,  constituting,  with  the  wheels,  a  com- 
plete vehicle,  upon  which  the  body  is  supported  by 
springs. 

The  perch  is  of  wood,  mortised  at  its  rear  end 
into  the  hind  axle  ;  its  connection  with  the  axle  is 
strengthened  by  the  hounds,  also  of  wood,  which  are 
mortised  into  the  axle,  and  bound  to  the  perch  by 
bands. 

To  insure  steadiness  in  the  running-  of  a  coach, 
the  length  of  the  perch  (that  is,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  axles)  should  be  not  less  than  six  feet, 
which  was  the  minimum  formerly  allowed  by  the 
English  Post-Office  authorities  for  the  mail-coaches. 
Six  feet  four  inches  is  not  any  too  long  ;  a  short- 
coupled  coach  will  rock  unpleasantly  and  little  is 
gained  by  diminishing  the  length. 

To  the  front  end  of  the  perch  is  attached,  at  right 
angles,  a  bed  or  transom.  This  transom  rests  upon 
the  top  of  the  front  axle  and  is  connected  with  it  by 
the  king-bolt  or  perch-bolt,  about  which  the  front 
axle  turns.     The  under  side  of  the  transom  and  the 


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o 


CH.  Ill  CARRIAGE-PART  21 

upper  side  of  the  axle  are  covered  with  steel  plates 
(transom  plates)  which  slide  on  each  other.  When 
the  axle  and  the  transom  are  parallel,  these  plates 
touch  each  other  throughout  their  whole  length  ;  but 
when  the  axle  is  turned  round  the  perch-bolt,  the 
plates  touch  only  near  their  centres  and  their  bear- 
ing is  consequently  much  diminished.  To  obviate 
this  defect  certain  American  builders  add  '  horns'  to 
the  transom  plates,  which  practically  widen  these 
plates  and  permit  them  to  bear  upon  each  other 
through  the  whole  angle  of  turning.  In 
ordinary  carriages  the  transom  does  not 
bear  directly  upon  the  axle,  but  carries 
upon  its  under  side  (Fig.  7)  a  circular 
plate,  which  turns  upon  a  similar  plate  at- 
tached   to  the    top   of  the  axle.     This   is 

Fig    7 
called  the  fifth-wheel,  and  it  is  generally  a 

full  circle,  although  sometimes,  as  in  light  wagons, 
it  is  a  half  circle  only.  A  fifth-wheel  is  not  used  in 
a  coach,  but  is  sometimes  used  in  a  break. 

Inasmuch  as  the  bearing  just  described,  of  the  bed 
on  the  axle,  would  be  insufficient  to  give  the  requi- 
site strength  and  stiffness,  two  additional  pieces  of 
wood,  the  inside  futchells,  are  mortised  through  the 
axle  and  run  backward,  spreading  to  a  width  of 
about  sixteen  inches  at  their  hinder  ends,  where 
they  are  connected  by  the  sway-bar.  In  the  rough 
farm  wagon,  before  described,  this  bar  is  straight, 
but  in  a  coach  it  is  curved  to  a  radius  equal  to  its 
distance  from  the   perch-bolt,   so  that   it  is  really  a 


2  2  CARRIAGE-PART  CH.  Ill 

short  section  of  a  large  fifth-wheel.  This  sway-bar 
is  plated  with  steel  on  its  upper  surface,  and  bears 
against  the  under  surface  of  the  perch,  which  is  also 
plated  at  that  point.  The  plate  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  perch  has  an  arm  or  lug  projecting 
downward  and  embracing  the  sway-bar  plate  so  as 
to  prevent  the  sway-bar  from  springing  away  from 
the  perch  under  any  jumping  motion  of  the  pole. 
The  sway-bar  plate  has  projections  near  its  ends, 
which  bring  up  against  this  lug  when  the  axle  has 
turned  through  a  certain  angle,  usually  about  twenty 
degrees,  to  prevent  the  wheel  from  touching  the  body 
when  the  coach  is  on  the  lock.  A  coach  is  said  to 
be  'on  the  lock,'  when  the  front  wheels  are  turned 
as  far  as  they  can  go  without  touching  the  body. 

The  inside  futchells  project  forward  of  the  axle, 
approaching  each  other  near  enough  to  form  a  chan- 
nel into  which  the  pole  is  fitted.  Near  their  ends 
they  carry  the  draw-bar,  or  splinter-bar,  which  is 
bolted  on  top  of  them.  For  the  purpose  of  sup- 
porting the  ends  of  this  bar,  two  straight  pieces, 
the  outside  futchells,  run  through  the  axle,  and  are 
attached  to  the  sway-bar  (the  plate  of  which  runs' 
over  on  top  of  them),  and  projecting  in  front,  take 
the  ends  of  the  splinter-bar,  to  the  under  side  of 
which  they  are  firmly  clipped.  The  splinter-bar  is 
straight,  six  feet  long,  and  carries  the  four  roller- 
bolts  to  which  the  traces  are  attached.  The  roller- 
bolts  have  flanges  on  top  to  prevent  the  traces  from 
slipping  off,  and  the  flanges  of  those  on  the  outside 


CH.  Ill  SPLINTER-BAR  23 

are  wide  enough  to  serve  as  steps  in  mounting  to 
the  box. 

On  a  drag,  these  flanges  should  be  lined  under- 
neath with  thick  leather,  to  prevent  the  metal 
slides  of  the  traces  from  rattling  against  them. 
The  inside  roller-bolts  should  be  larger  in  diameter 
than  those  on  the  outside,  in  order  to  take  up  a 
portion  of  the  length  of  the  inside  trace,  for  the 
reason  given  in  the  article  on  'Putting  to,'  in 
Chapter  XII. 

With  the  traces  attached  directly  to  the  stiff  splin- 
ter-bar, the  horse,  in  the  movement  of  his  shoulders, 
pulls  alternately  on  one  trace  and  the  other,  and  if 
he  has  on  a  breast-collar,  or  as  it  is  sometimes 
called  a  '  Dutch  collar,'  this  movement  inside  of  the 
leather  will  frequently  rub  the  shoulder,  and  make 
it  sore.  For  this  reason,  when  Eno-lish  travelline 
carriages  were  taken  to  the  Continent  in  old  post- 
ing times  they  had  loose  swingle-trees  attached  to 
the  splinter-bar  because  the  Continental  posting 
harness  had  breast  collars.  (Beaufort,  p.  353.) 
See  Plate  X. 

Even  with  ordinary  collars,  horses  work  more 
easily  with  moveable  swingle-trees,  and  it  will  be 
noticed  that  those  who  work  horses  as  a  matter  of 
business,  such  as  livery-stable  keepers,  invariably 
use  them.  My  own  experience  long  ago  led  me  to 
modify  the  arrangement  of  the  splinter-bar  of  my 
coach  in  such  a  way  that,  while  the  roller-bolts  are 
retained  and  the  general  outward  appearance  of  the 


24 


SPLINTER-BAR 


CH.   Ill 


bar  but  little  altered,  the  advantage  of  a  moveable 
swingle-tree  is  obtained. 

The  general  arrangement  is  seen  in  Fig.  8.     The 
details,  with  dimensions  which  should  be  somewhat 


X 


B 


M 


A 


D 


Q 


M 


Fig.  8. 

closely  adhered  to,  are  shown  in  Fig.  9,  drawn  to 
one-quarter  of  the  full  size.  The  bolt  which  passes 
through  the  splinter-bar  should  be  not  less  than 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  swelled 
portion  being  welded  upon  it.     It  should  be  carefully 

turned  in  the  lathe  to  the  proper 
fit,  and  the  corners  between  the 
swelled  portion  and  the  pin  must  be 
left  full,  and  not  cut  in  sharply,  since 
it  is  here  that  the  pin  is  most  liable 
to  break.  After  the  nut  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pin  is  screwed  up,  the 
end  of  the  pin  should  be  hammered 
over  so  that  the  nut  cannot  come 
off;  the  top  end  of  the  bolt  should 
have  a  split  pin  passing  through  it  over  the  nut. 
The  shackle,  which  is  bolted  to  the  back  of  the 
splinter-bar,  must  be  strong  and  of  tough  iron,  be- 
cause, should  the  pin  break,  all  the  strain  will  come 
upon  the  shackle.  Of  course  the  objection  may  be 
made    to    this    arrangement    that    every   additional 


Fig.  9. 


CH.  Ill  SPLINTER-BAR  25 

moveable  part  about  a  coach  increases  the  chances 
of  breakage,  but  the  increase  of  comfort  to  the 
horses  is  undoubted.  This  arrangement  is  similar 
to  that  usually  seen  on  light  wagons,  with  the  dif- 
ference, however,  that  the  swingle-tree  is  deep 
enough,  and  the  pin  stiff  enough,  to  permit  the  use 
of  the  outside  roller-bolt  as  a  step.  The  motion 
of  the  swingle-tree  is  restricted  by  a  strap,  which 
should  be  put  on  quite  tight,  since  a  movement  of 
the  roller-bolt  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  front  of,  and 
behind,  the  bar  is  sufficient. 

Some  coachmen  think  that  a  coach  can  be  guided 
more  accurately  with  an  entirely  stiff  bar  than  with 
moveable  swingle-trees,  because  either  horse,  if 
urged  forward,  will  turn  the  fore-carriage  very 
quickly  by  the  application  of  his  force  to  the  outer 
end  of  the  bar.  Since,  however,  the  motion  of  the 
swingle-tree  is  limited  by  the  strap  and  by  the  neat- 
ness of  fit  of  the  pin,  it  will  be  found,  in  practice, 
that  the  difference  is  not  noticeable. 

The  amount  of  the  motion  of  the  ends  of  the 
swingle-trees  corresponding  to  the  action  of  the 
horses'  shoulders  can  be  well  observed  in  a  trotting 
wagon,  which  always  has  swingle-trees,  and  it  is 
very  noticeable  to  the  occupant  of  any  one-horse 
vehicle,  a  coupe  for  instance,  in  which  the  traces  are 
attached  directly  to  the  root  of  the  shafts  and  not  to 
a  swing-bar,  the  alternate  sideways  motion  given  to 
the  carriage  being  extremely  disagreeable. 

1  Nimrod'  says  (Malet,  p.  386)  :   '  The  swing  bar 


2  6  SPLINTER-BAR  CH.   Ill 

'  we  use  in  coaches  is  an  excellent  invention,  as  a 
'  horse  works  in  it  from  either  shoulder,  and  of 
'  course  quite  at  his  ease.'  This,  of  course,  refers 
to  the  lead-bars,  and  shows  that  '  Nimrod'  recog- 
nises the  importance  of  the  principle. 

Le  Noble  du  Teil  (p.  349)  thinks  that  with  a 
collar,  the  freedom  of  movement  of  the  swindle-tree 
is  not  important,  although  it  is  important  with  the 
breast-collar,  or  bricolc,  because  the  collar  is  pressed 
forward  alternately  by  the  shoulders,  and  there  is 
pressure  but  not  friction.  This  alternating  pressure 
must,  however,  tire  the  shoulders,  even  if  it  does  not 
rub  the  skin. 

After  the  preceding  pages  were  written,  I  found 
the  following  passage  in  Philipson  On  Harness, 
p.  57,  ed.  1882,  written  by  '  Glencairn'  (Colonel  J. 
P.  Pedler)  to  The  Field,  in  June  1878  : 

'  A  word  about  sore  shoulders.  I  never  drive 
'  with  anything  but  a  swingle  bar,  and  that  not 
1  fixed  by  a  band  of  leather  eight  inches  broad, 
'  which  defeats  the  object  of  a  swingle  bar,  but  by 
'  a  bolt  running  through  it  vertically,  or  by  an  eye 
'  playing  on  a  hook.  I  think  a  proper  swingle  bar 
'  is  a  help  to  preventing  sore  shoulders,  besides 
'  having  other  and  most  important  advantages. 
'  Even  in  a  four-wheeled  carriage  and  with  a  pair 
'  I  always  put  swingle  bars,  and  the  following  is 
'  the  best  way  to  fix  them,  viz.  :  Put  them  on  top 
4  of  the  splinter  bar,  bring  an  iron  support  from 
v  the   futchells  to   the   top  of   the   swingle  bar,   and 


CH.  Ill  SPLINTER-BAR  2J 

1  make  an  eye  in  the  end  of  it ;  drive  a  bolt  through 
'  this  eye,  the  swingle  bar,  and  the  splinter  bar, 
'  with  a  nut  underneath.  On  this  bolt  the  swingle 
'  bar  revolves  beautifully.  You  can  have  the  ordi- 
'  nary  roller  bolts  on  the  swingle  bars.  I  have 
'written  to  "  Nimshivich,"  who  is  evidently  one  of 
'  those  who  knows  what  he  is  talking  about.  I 
'  consider  that  with  swingle  bars  a  horse  is  always 
'  pulling  with  both  shoulders  instead  of  with  one 
'  at  a  time  alternately  ;  also  that  the  evil  of  uneven 
'  traces  is  nullified.' 

A  full-sized  model  of  the  bars,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  was  exhibited  by  me  in  the  Coaching  Ex- 
hibitions in  London  of  1894  and  1896,  and  had 
Colonel  Pedler's  letter  been  seen  earlier,  the  model 
would  have  been  accompanied  by  a  note  of  explana- 
tion. The  arrangement  was  applied  to  my  coach  in 
1877,  and  the  invention  seems  therefore  to  have 
been  made  by  us  both  at  about  the  same  time. 

In  many  vehichles  the  bar  itself  is  made  to  move 
about  a  central  pin,  and  is  then  called  an  evener, 
because  it  ensures,  within  certain  limits,  each  horse 
doine  an  even  share  of  the  work,  but  it  is  not  used 
on  a  coach,  nor  is  it  necessary,  as  the  coachman 
should  be  able  to  make  his  horses  work  evenly 
without  the  aid  of  any  mechanical  appliance. 

An  evener  is  sometimes  made  with  two  holes  on 
either  side  of  the  middle  one,  so  that  by  shifting  it 
on  the  pin,  a  weak  horse  can  be  favoured.  This 
is   not  likely  to   be   used  on  a  coach,   but  a  good 


28 


FORE-CARRIAGE 


CH.   Ill 


r\ 

c  *-•; 

i_ 

j 

/**       V 

l_ 

r 

»*» 

',** 

,'--5 

:, 

V^' 

r 

</' 

• 

coachman  ought  to  know  all  the  dodges  that  at  some 
time  migrht  be  of  use  to  him. 

The  front  axle  of  a  vehicle  with  a  perch,  or  with 
a  body  which  is  wide  and  low,  can  turn  through  a 
small  angle  only,  before  the  front  wheel  touches  the 
perch  or  the  body,  and  many  attempts   have  been 

made  to  reme- 
dy  this  defect. 
One  method  is 
to  put  the 
perch-bolt  back 
of  the  line  of 
the  axle-arms, 
pIG    IO  in   which   case 

(as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  10,  where  the  wheel  is  represented  as  touching 
the  body),  a  larger  angle  of  the  pole  with  the  centre 
line  can  be  obtained.  This  is  dangerous,  however, 
if  carried  to  excess,  because  when  on  the  lock,  the 
front  wheels  are  to  one  side  of  the  centre  line  and 
the  stabilitv  of  the  coach  is  much  diminished. 

In  broughams  the  perch-bolt  is  frequently  put 
somewhat  forward  of  the  line  of  the  axle-arms, 
which  brings  the  inside  wheel  forward  in  making  a 
turn  and  permits  it  to  go  under  the  boot  without  touch- 
ing the  body,  still  keeping  the  carriage-part  short. 

A  variety  of  plans  for  jointed  axle-arms  have 
been  proposed:  by  Ackermax  in  1 8 1 8  ;  by  Rock  in 
1850;  by  Herdic  in  1880;  and  later  by  Jeantaud, 
of   Paris.      Nearly    all    modern    horseless    carriages 


CH.   Ill  FORE-CARRIAGE  29 

have  this  arrangement,   which  permits   part  of  the 

machinery   to   be   sunk   between   the   front   wheels. 

These   plans   all   depend   upon   an   arrangement   of 

parallel  bars,  with  arms  that  turn  the  axle-arms  and 

wheels,  about  the  end  of  a  fixed  M 

axle.     If  the  boots   are   not  too  ®=fl 

deep,  a  coach  fitted  in  this  way     >        cds  * 

will   turn,    on   an   almost   square  <^==i 

.       .     .  1      Q      1 

lock,  round  a  point  inside  of  the 

spot    where     one     hind     wheel      ffNs^ 

touches     the    ground,     and     the  KnT^ 

lowest  points  of  the  front  wheels      *        <J<mK\ 

will  not  deviate  greatly  from  the  ^\T  ^x\  ... 

lines  running  through  the   hind 

wheels,  as  is  shown  by  the  dotted 

lines  in  Fig.  11,  which  is  only  a  diagram,  and  is  not 

intended  to  show  details  of  construction. 

To  obtain  the  greatest  freedom  in  turning,  the 
parallel  bar  A  B  (Fig.  12),  which  is  behind  the  axle 
and  connects  the  arms,  must  be  as  much  shorter  than 
the  distance  on  the  axle  between  the  joints  of  the 
axle-arms  as  will  make  the  lines  of  the  arms,  pro- 
duced, join  at  the  centre  of  the  hind  axle  (Fig.  1 2,  C). 

The  front  wheels,  when  turning,  will  then  assume 
positions  which  are  not  parallel  to  each  other,  as 
they  are  in  Fig.  11,  but  at  right  angles  to  two  radii 
meeting  on  a  line  which  is  the  prolongation  of  the 
hind  axle,  and  all  four  wheels  will  turn  round  that 
point,  as  a  common  centre,  without  any  grinding 
upon  the  road. 


3Q 


AXLE 


CH.   Ill 


A  practical  objection  to  this  arrangement,  is  the 
largely  increased  number  of  parts  and  joints,  with 


\ 


\ 


Fig.  12. 

the  consequent  risk  of  breakage,  and  difficulty  of 
preventing  rattling. 

Axle. — The  axle  of  the  simplest  cart  or  wagon 
is  entirely  of  wood,  the  ends  being  tapered  and 
rounded,  and  covered  by  a  thin  conical  iron  tube 
called  a  skein,  on  which  the  wheel,  which  has  an 
iron  boxing  or  lining  of  some  more  or  less  complete 
form,  runs.  The  axle  of  a  coach  is  made  in  several 
parts.  The  axle-bed  is  of  wood,  sometimes  in  two 
pieces,  between  which  the  futchells  are  held,  and 
under  it  is  fastened  the  axle  proper,  which  is  of 
strong,  tough  iron  or  mild  steel,  about  two  inches 
square,  in  one  continuous  length,  terminating  in 
arms  upon  which  the  wheels  run.     Originally  these 


CH.  Ill 


MAIL    AXLE 


31 


arms  were  tapered,  and  projected  beyond  the  face  of 
the  hub  of  the  wheel,  and  through  a  hole  near  the 
end  a  linchpin  of  iron  or  hard  wood  passed,  to  keep 
the  wheel  on.  Until  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
the  linchpin  was  universally  used,  but  it  was  then 
superseded  by  a  nut  screwed  on  the  end  of  the 
axle.  On  private  carriages  the  linchpin  was  used 
to  a  much  later  date  than  on  coaches  ;  until  1830 
or  1840.     (Beaufort,  p.  307.) 

A  simple  axle-arm  is  used  in  light  carriages  and 
in  business  wagons  ;  it  is  tapered,  and  the  nut,  which 
screws  against  a  shoulder  so  that  it  cannot  be  set 
up  too  tight,  is  cut  with  a  right  hand  thread  on  the 
off  side  axle  and  a  left  hand  thread  on  the  near 
side  axle,  so  that  the  turning  of  the  wheel  tends  to 
keep  the  nut  on  and  not  to  screw  it  off. 

All  coaches  have  either  mail  axles  or  Collinore 
axles.  The  mail  axle  (Fig.  13),  so  called  because  it 
was    originally 


used  on  the 
mail  -  coaches, 
is  not  tapered, 
but  the  arm 
is  cylindrical. 
It   is   not   lono- 


Fig. 


!3- 


enough  to  extend  through  the  hub  of  the  wheel, 
and  it  has  at  the  back  end  a  wide  collar  against 
which  the  back  of  the  hub  bears.  The  box  in  the 
hub  is  turned  to  fit  the  cylindrical  axle-arm,  and 
the  two  are  ground  together,  or  ground  by  gauges, 


32 


COLLINGE    AXLE 


CH.   Ill 


so  as  to  fit  with  accuracy.*  This  box  is  closed  at 
its  outer  end,  and  there  are  neither  nuts  nor  linch- 
pin. Behind  the  collar  of  the  axle  there  is  a  loose 
circular  plate,  called  the  moon  plate,  which  has  been 
put  on  before  the  axle  is  welded  together  in  the 
middle.  Around  the  edge  of  this  plate  there  are 
three  holes  ;  three  bolts  run  entirely  through  the 
hub  from  the  front  and  pass  through  the  holes  in  the 
moon  plate,  terminating  in  threaded  ends,  on  which 
there  are  nuts.  As  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  13,  these 
bolts  hold  the  wheel,  by  drawing  the  moon  plate 
toward  the  back  of  the  hub,  the  collar  of  the  axle 
being  between  them,  so  that  the  wheel  cannot  come 
off  unless  all  three  bolts  break,  and  even  if  the  axle 
breaks,  the  wheel  will  not  be  released  unless  the 
fracture  takes  place  behind  the  collar.  For  this 
reason  the  mail  axle  is  the  safest  axle  in  use. 

The  Collinge  axle  (Fig.  14),  so  named  from  its  in- 
ventor, was  intro- 
duced in  1792.-J- 
Its  arm  is  also 
cylindrical  and 
fits  accurately  to 
its  box.  The  arm 
extends  through  the  box  and  has  on  its  end  two 
nuts  having  threads  running  different  ways,  so  that 


*  A  journal  which  is  an  absolute  fit  will  not  run  so  easily  as  one 
that  has  a  little  play  both  in  its  diameter  and  endwise. — Thurston, 
Frictio)i  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery,  p.  44. 

I  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  axle,  first  made  at  a  date  when 


CH.  Ill  TAPER    AXLE  33 

any  movement  tending  to  unscrew  one  will  screw 
up  the  other.  Outside  of  the  nuts  there  is  a  small 
pin  passing  through  the  reduced  end  of  the  axle, 
which  pin  is  prevented  from  coming  out  by  the  cap 
covering  it.  This  cap  screws  into  the  box,  and  con- 
sequently into  the  hub,  and  not  on  the  axle  ;  it 
turns,  therefore,  with  the  wheel.  The  cap  holds 
about  half  a  pint  of  oil  which  slowly  finds  its  way 
along  the  arm  through  shallow  grooves  made  for 
the  purpose.  The  outward  pressure  of  the  wheel  is 
not  taken  directly  by  the  back  of  the  nut,  but  by  a 
loose  collar,  called  the  collet,  which  is  behind  the 
nut,  and  prevented  from  turning  by  being  fitted  to 
a  fiat  place  worked  on  that  part  of  the  axle. 

The  thrust  in  the  other  direction  is  against  an 
enlargement  of  the  arm,  a  leather  washer  being 
put  there  to  regulate  the  play  of  the  wheel.  This 
washer  also  prevents  the  oil  from  oozing  out  at  the 
back  of  the  wheel,  and  the  dirty  oil  accumulates  in 
a  recess  in  the  box,  made  for  the  purpose. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  both  these  arms  are  cylin- 
drical and  not  tapered  ;  the  fit  is  therefore  made  by 
the  maker  and  is  not  adjustable. 

The  point  at  which  an  axle-arm  is  most  liable  to 
break,  is  at  its  back  end,  owing  to  the  leverage  of 
the  wheel  being  the  greatest  there,  and  the  diam- 
eter at  that  point  must  be  made  proportionate  to  the 

mechanical  processes  were  not  so  far  advanced  as  at  present,  should 
have  been  so  perfect  that  little  improvement  has  been  made  upon  it 
in  a  hundred  years. 


34  CYLINDRICAL    AXLE-ARM  CH.   Ill 

strain.  A  taper  arm  can  be  considerably  reduced 
at  its  outer  end  without  weakening  it  and  a  smaller 

box  and  hub  can  be  used  ; 
—7     for  this  reason,  in  light  car- 

riages  the  taper  arm   (Fig. 


15)  is  generally  adopted. 
One  disadvantage  of  it  is, 
that  the  tightness  of  the  wheel  depends  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  leather  washer  behind  it  ;  if  this  is 
too  thin,  the  wheel  ma)'  be  so  shoved  up  on  the 
taper  as  to  run  too  tight  ;  if  it  is  too  thick,  the 
wheel  will  be  too  loose  and  will  not  run  true. 

With  a  cylindrical  arm,  a  certain  amount  of  end- 
play  can  be  given  by  using  a  thin  washer  while  the 
wheel  will  still  run  perfectly  true.  Some  coachmen 
think  it  well  to  have  this  end-play  (to  have  the 
wheel  talk,  as  it  is  called),  thereby  avoiding  some 
sidewise  shocks  from  small  stones  and  ruts.  A 
slight  end-motion  undoubtedly  helps  to  distribute 
the  oil,  prevents  the  arm  from  wearing  in  grooves, 
and  is  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  practice 
in  railway  and  mill  work. 

There  is  a  parallel  or  cylindrical  arm  made,  which, 

to  a  certain  extent,  fulfils 
both  conditions,  by  being  ta- 
pered in  a  curve  at  its  back 


*******  ~*\ 


\J 


> 


l6-  end  and  parallel  throughout 

most  of  its  length  (Fig.  16).  The  effects  of  taper 
and  of  parallel  arms  will  be  further  considered  when 
treating  of  Wheels. 


CH.   Ill  AXLE-ARM  35 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  coach- 
ing men  and  builders  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the 
mail  and  Collinge  axles  for  coaches.  The  usual 
practice  is  to  put  Collinge  axles  on  private  coaches 
and  mail  axles  on  public  coaches.  Owing  to  the 
absence  of  the  bolt-heads  and  the  presence  of  the 
plated  cap,  the  Collinge  axle  looks  the  neater  and 
more  finished,  and  with  the  use  that  it  gets  in  pri- 
vate driving,  it  will  run  for  two  or  three  months 
without  re-oiling.  The  mail  axle  is  no  doubt  some- 
what safer,  but  the  breaking  of  the  axle  close  to  the 
back  of  the  wheel,  even  though  the  wheel  could  not 
come  off  entirely,  would,  at  any  speed,  probably 
cause  an  accident  due  to  the  wheel's  beino-  twisted 
to  pieces. 

The  mail  axle  requires  oiling  every  one  or  two 
weeks,  which  is  not  only  troublesome,  but  neces- 
sitates the  constant  unscrewing  and  screwing  up  of 
the  bolts,  which  wears  the  threads  and  ruins  them 
if  it  is  not  done  with  much  care.  An  oil  chamber 
can  be  made  in  the  end  of  the  axle,  as  shown  in  the 
cut  of  an  improved  mail  axle  in  Stratton,  p.  454, 
and  in  Fig.  1 3  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  fill  this  chamber, 
the  only  way  being  to  pour  the  oil  into  the  wheel  be- 
fore putting  it  on,  while  the  cap  of  a  Collinge  axle 
is  readily  filled  and  quickly  put  on,  before  the  oil 
can  run  out.  Collinge  axle-boxes  are  usually  merely 
forced  into  the  hub  and  not  otherwise  fastened ; 
consequently  they  sometimes  work  out ;  this  is  im- 
possible with   a   mail   axle   and   is   one   of  its   chief 


2,6  AXLE-ARM  CH.   Ill 

advantages.  The  fancy  of  some  builders  or  owners 
for  having  a  Collinge  axle  with  a  sham  plate  and 
three  bolt-heads,  put  on  over  the  cap,  cannot  be 
commended,  since  one  of  the  objections  to  the  mail 
axle  is  the  ugliness  of  the  plate,  especially  on  a 
private  coach. 

The  present  fashion  certainly  is  to  have  Collinge 
axles  on  private  coaches  and  mail  axles  on  public- 
coaches,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  objection  to  it 
as  a  proper  distinction  ;  but  the  more  the  coach  is 
used  for  long  drives  and  fast  work,  the  more  reason 
is  there  for  adopting  the  mail  axle.  The  fact  that 
a  public-coach,  running  at  a  high  speed,  a  number 
of  miles  every  day,  with  heavy  loads,  requires  a 
much  more  frequent  inspection  in  all  its  parts  than 
does  a  private  drag,  makes  the  trouble  of  frequent 
oiling  of  relatively  less  importance. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  have  the  axle-arm  too  small  ;  a 
somewhat  large  hub  is  not  out  of  place  on  a  heavy 
vehicle,  and  the  best  practice  in  modern  machinery 
tends  toward  large  rubbing  surfaces  on  all  journals, 
although  the  resistance  to  the  turning  of  the  wheel 
due  to  friction  is  directly  as  the  diameter  of  the  axle. 
The  value  of  the  oil  as  a  lubricant  depends  upon  its 
particles  remaining  in  good  condition  between  the 
rubbing  surfaces,  and  on  small  surfaces,  with  heavy 
pressures,  this  condition  is  rapidly  destroyed.  Jn 
any  question  as  to  the  dimensions  of  an  axle-arm, 
therefore,  the  designer  should  lean  toward  a  large 
size,  both  on  account  of  its  superior  strength  and 


CH.  Ill  GAUGE  2)7 

its  lighter  running.  Two  inches  is  the  minimum 
diameter  for  a  coach  axle-arm  ;  two  and  a  quarter 
inches  is  better. 

India-rubber  bands,  or  rings,  are  sometimes  in- 
serted between  the  inside  of  the  hub  and  the  out- 
side of  the  axle-box,  and  they  undoubtedly  lessen 
the  vibrations,  but  they  require  a  large  hub  since 
they  weaken  a  small  one,  and  if  a  brake  is  used, 
they  are  twisted  out  of  condition,  so  that  they  are 
not  adapted  to  coaches, — at  least  not  to  the  hind 
wheels.  Since  rubber  tires  have  come  into  use,  the 
rubber-cushioned  hubs  have  been  abandoned. 

The  length  of  the  axle  obviously  depends  upon 
the  distance  apart  of  the  wheels  ;  this  distance  is 
called  the  guage  or  track,  and  is  usually  measured 
from  centre  to  centre  of  the  tires,  on  the  ground. 
It  varies  from  5  ft.  4  in.,  in  an  American  Concord 
coach,  to  4  ft.  8^  in.,  which  is  given  by  Harris 
[Coaching  Age,  p.  102),  as  having  been  that  of  the 
old  mail-coaches. 

That  was  probably  the  distance  from  out  to  otit, 
since  it  was  adopted  as  the  railway  gauge,  and  an 
Act,  of  George  III.,  fixes  4  ft.  6  in.  as  the  minimum 
gauge  for  a  coach  from  centre  to  centre.  In  the 
coaches  and  drags  of  the  present  day,  the  gauge  is 
usually  about  5  ft.  1  in.  On  good  roads  a  uniform- 
ity of  gauge  of  the  different  vehicles  used  is  unim- 
portant, but  on  the  earth  roads  of  America,  a  car- 
riage which  does  not  fit  in  the  ruts  already  made, 
runs  very  hard.     In  any  one  locality,  therefore,   all 


38  WHEEL  CH.   Ill 

carriages  are  made  to  track  the  same,  but  in  different 
localities  this  track  varies  ;  for  instance,  in  New  York 
it  is  4  ft.  8  in.,  while  in  Pennsylvania  it  is  5  ft.  2  in. 

Wheel. — The  wheel  is  a  simple  mechanical  con- 
trivance for  transferring  the  friction  between  the 
moving  body  and  the  ground,  to  a  surface  which 
reduces  that  friction,  and  also  for  diminishing  the 
resistance  opposed  by  an  obstacle  on  the  ground. 

If  a  weight  is  drawn  along  on  the  ground  on  a 
sled,  the  friction  between  the  runner  of  the  sled  and 
the  ground  is  great,  and  is  due  to  the  roughness 
of  both  surfaces,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when 
both  are  very  smooth,  as  in  a  steel  runner  on  ice, 
the  friction  becomes  very  small.  When  a  wheel  is 
introduced,  as  it  does  not  slide  on  the  ground,  the 
friction  is  changed  to  a  rolling  friction,  and  the  rub- 
bing  friction  is  transferred  to  the  axle,  which  can 
have   its   surface   so   polished   and   supplied   with   a 

lubricant     that     this 
rubbing     friction     is 
greatly  diminished. 
As     to     the     ob- 


stacle :  it  is  obvious 
that  the  wheel  has 
to  be  lifted  over  it, 
and  the  draught, 
acting  in  the  line 
A  B  (Fig.  17),  pulls  on  a  bent  lever,  BCD,  raising 
the  weight,  which  may  be  considered  as  concentrated 


CH.  Ill  WHEEL  39 

at  D.  The  longer  the  arm  B  C,  and  the  shorter  the 
arm  C  D,  the  more  easily  will  the  draught  raise  the 
weight  of  the  wheel,  and  for  the  same  sized  obstacle 
the  larger  wheel  will  evidently  have  the  advantage. 

In  the  figure,  the  lines  of  draught  make  the  same 
angle  with  the  radius-arm  of  the  lever  ;  if  the  lines 
of  draught  are  parallel,  the  advantage  of  the  larger 
wheel  is  still  greater. 

There  is  a  limit  in  practice  to  the  size  of  wheels, 
because,  if  very  large,  their  weight  may  more  than 
balance  their  other  advantages  ;  but  this  will  be  true 
only  of  extravagant  designs  ;  within  the  usual  limits, 
the  larger  the  wheel  the  better.  The  very  small 
wheels  sometimes  used  on  pony  phaetons  are  cruel 
to  the  horses. 

On  a  road  which  is  level  crosswise,  the  wheel 
which  will  run  the  easiest  must  be  straight,  vertical, 
with  a  tire  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  wheel, 
and  the  axle  must  be  cylindrical, — that  is,  not  ta- 
pered,— and  horizontal.  In  other  words,  the  wheel 
must  be  a  short  section  of  a  true  cylinder,  revolving 
on  a  horizontal  cylindrical  axis.  All  rolling  frames  or 
carriages  in  ordinary  machinery  are  thus  mounted. 

In  wagon  and  carriage  building,  departures  from 
this  system  have  been  made  for  various  reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  much  more  easy  to  make  a 
wheel  fit  on  a  taper  axle-arm  than  on  one  with  par- 
allel sides,  since  the  application  of  washers  behind 
the  wheel  will  determine  how  far  it  may  be  pushed 
on  the  arm  and  how  tight  it  may  be  ;  while  with  a 


4o 


WHEEL 


CH.  Ill 


S> 


_, 


Fig.  18. 


parallel  arm  the  box  must  be  fitted  to  it  with  accu- 
racy, requiring  very  good  workmanship  and  perfect 
tools,  and  no  adjustment  of  the  fit  is  afterward  pos- 
sible. The  greatest  strain  on  the  arm  being  at  the 
back  end,  a  tapered  arm  can  be  made  lighter  for  a 
given  strength. 

With  a  straight,  vertical  wheel  on  a 
taper  arm,  the  centre  line  of  which  is 
horizontal,  the  tendency  of  the  wheel  will 
be  to  run  off,  or  against  the  nut,  or  linch- 
pin, while  to  be  safe  it  should  tend  to  run 
on,  or  against  the  collar  (Fig.  18). 

To  obviate  this  defect,  the  taper  axle- 
arms  are  so  set  that  their  under  sides 
are  horizontal  (Fig.  19). 

This  arrangement  places  the  wheels 
farther  apart  at  the  top  than  at  the 
bottom,  and  evidently  brings  a  strain 
upon  the  lower  part  of  the  wheel, 
tending  to  push  it  inward.  To  provide 
against  this,  the  wheel  is  dished,  so  that 
the  lower  spoke  is  always  vertical  or 
plumb  (Fig.  20). 

This  turning  down  of  the  point  of  the 

axle  is  called  variously  :  hang,  dip,  swing, 

and  pitch. 

The  amount  of  dish,  is  the  distance  of  the  front 

side  of  the  root  of  the  spoke  from  the  face  of  the 

rim,  measured  in  the  direction  of  the  axle. 

This   construction   of  the  wheel  also   strengthens 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  20. 


CH.   Ill 


CONED    WHEEL 


41 


Fig.  21. 


it,  since,  owing  to  the  clasp  of  the  tire,  the  wheel 
cannot  be  flattened  out  by  a  force  acting  on  the  in- 
side end  of  the  hub  ;  but  it  is  correspondingly  weak 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Equal  strength  in  both 
directions  can  be  secured  by  placing  the 
spokes  alternately  on  both  sides  of  a  line 
around  the  hub,  as  is  done  to  an  exagger- 
ated extent  in  a  bicycle  wheel  and  to  a 
smaller  extent  in  carriage  wheels  (Fig. 
21).  This  '  stao-o-erinor '  or  'dodging,'  of 
the  spokes  also  less  weakens  the  hub. 

The  best  results  would  seem  to  be  ob- 
tained in  heavy  work,  by  using  a  parallel 
axle,  fitted  by  the  best  processes,  set  very  nearly 
level,  with  an  almost  vertical  wheel  having-  but  little 
dish. 

II  a  wheel  is  dished  and  the  axle  so  set  as  to 
give  a  plumb  bottom  spoke,  the  tire,  in  order  to  fit 
a  flat  road,  must  be  horizontal  cross- 
wise at  its  bottom  point,  and  must 
therefore  be  a  section  of  a  cone,  the 
position  of  the  apex  of  which  will  be 
determined  by  the  dip  of  the  axle 
(Fig.  22).  If  the  tire  is  not  so  made 
in  the  beginning  it  will  finally  wear 
into  that  form. 

Now  a  cone,  or  a  section  of  a  cone, 
will  tend  to  roll  in  a  circle,  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  point  at  which  the  apex  of  the  cone 
would  touch  the  ground,  so  that  if  the  wheels  of  a 


777777777777/ 


777777777777? 

Fig.  22. 


42  COXED    WHEEL  CH.   Ill 

carriage  are  sections  of  cones  they  will  not  tend 
to  roll  straight  on  in  the  direction  in  which  the  car- 
riage   is    going,   but   to    turn  off  to  the   outside,   as 

shown  by  the  dotted 
curves  of  Fig.  23  ; 
consequently,  they 
',:>  will  run  against  the 
nuts,  or  linchpins,  and 
thereby  set  up  a  re- 
sistance which  will  in- 
crease the  draught. 
'///////////)?,  in  addition  to  this, 
the  face  of  the  wheel 
having  different  diameters,  its  parts  will  revolve  with 
different  velocities  ;  and  as  all  parts  must  move 
over  the  surface  of  the  road  at  the  same  forward 
velocity,  there  will  be  but  one  line  of  the  tire  that 
will  roll,  all  other  lines  of  the  tire  being  dragged 
on  the  surface,  with  a  grinding  action  that  destroys 
the  road  and  the  tire,  and  increases  the  draught. 
Some  old  English  wagons  are  said  to  have  had  tires 
10  inches  wide,  and  with  coned  wheels  these  would 
grind  on  the  road  excessively.  It  was  because,  in 
the  last  century,  all  wheels  in  heavy  vehicles  were 
considerably  coned,  that  the  road  authorities  ob- 
jected to  wide  tires  as  injuring  the  road  ;  wide 
tires  on  cylindrical  wheels  are  an  advantage  to  a 
road. 

In  the  figures  an  exaggerated  amount  of  coning 
is   shown,  for  clearness,  but   exactly  the   same   kind 


CH.   Ill  CONED    WHEEL  43 

of  action  takes  place  in  a  less  degree  with  a  less 
amount. 

We  have  so  far  assumed  that  the  road  is  flat 
crosswise  ;  the  conditions  will  be  changed  if  the 
cross  section  is  different. 

To  take  an  exaggerated  case,  such  as  might  occur 
in  a  special  piece  of  machinery  :  the  treads  of  the 
wheels,  and  the  axles,  must  be  parallel  to  the  sur- 
faces on  which  they  run  in  order  to 
determine  a  straight  direction,  as  in 
Fig.  24  ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  road, 
the  cross  section  of  which  is  curved, 
a  straight,  not  a  coned,  wheel,  with 
the  axle  bent  down  so  as  to  bring 
the  tire  to  bear  flat  on  the  road, 
would  be  correct.  This  probably 
gave  rise  to  the  early  practice  of  building  vehicles 
in  this  manner,  but  it  is  obvious  that  to  be  correct, 
the  cross  section  of  the  road  must  be  the  same  in 
all  places,  which  is  not  likely  to  be  the  case. 

All  roads  are  somewhat  lower  at  the  sides  than 
at  the  middle,  and  when  a  carriage  leaves  the  cen- 
tre, it  inclines  toward  the  gutter,  so  as  to  throw  the 
weight  more  on  the  down  side  wheel  and  to  take  it 
off  the  higher  wheel.  The  danger  always  is,  there- 
fore, of  bending  the  wheel  from  its  inside  outward, 
but  not  in  the  other  direction  ;  this  is  resisted  by 
the  shape  of  a  dished  wheel,  as  the  hub  cannot 
possibly  be  pushed  through  from  the  back  with- 
out   compressing   and    shortening    the    spokes  ;    an 


44  WHEEL  CH.  Ill 

important    reason   for  at    least  a   small   amount  of 
dish. 

In  turning  a  corner,  the  centrifugal  force  acts  in 
the  same  way  upon  the  outside  wheel. 

In  some  heavy  vehicles  we  find  wheels  made  with 
a  slight  dish,  but  fitted  on  horizontal  axle-arms,  so 
that  the  face  of  the  wheel  is  vertical,  but  the  bottom 
spoke  not  plumb  ;  this  dish  gives  strength  to  the 
wheel  and  is  not  a  disadvantage,  since  the  bottom 
spoke  approaches  the  vertical  when  the  vehicle  in- 
clines sidewise  on  the  down  side  of  the  road.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe,  this  construction  is  very 
common  in  carts,  which  frequently  have  wheels  6 
feet  high. 

It  must  be  noted  that  in  a  small,  heavy  wheel 
the  width  of  the  spokes  compared  with  the 
y-r  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  so  great  that  any 
line  representing  a  moderate  dish  falls  en- 
tirely within  the  substance  of  the  spokes,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  25  ;  such 
a  wheel  is  therefore  strong-,  although  not 
really  dished. 

'  Nimrod,'  in  The  Road  (1832),  prefers 
straight,  vertical  wheels,  and  speaks  of  the 
mail-coach  wheels  as  being  the  best ;  made  with  a 
large  nave,  every  other  spoke  framed  perpendicular 
to  the  nave  ;  the  others  behind  the  line. 

Since  these  old  wheels  were  made  with  'strokes,' 
and  not  with  hooped  tires,  a  part  of  the  advantage 
of  dishing  the  wheel  was  lost.      Strokes  were  tires 


Fig.   25 


CH.  Ill  WHEEL  45 

put  on  in  pieces  and  secured  by  bolts  ;  they  over- 
lapped the  joints  of  the  fellies  and  added  to  the 
strength  of  the  wheel,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as 
does  the  modern  hoop-tire,  which  is  continuous  and 
binds  the  wheel  tightly  together.  The  hoop-tire  is 
made  somewhat  too  small  to  oo  on  the  wheel  ;  it  is 
expanded  by  heating,  and  being  then  put  on  the 
wheel,  is  rapidly  cooled  and  shrunk  by  the  applica- 
tion of  water.  A  great  deal  of  judgement  must  be 
exercised  by  the  smith  in  this  operation  with  light 
wheels,  as  they  may  have  their  dish  increased  be- 
yond the  intention  of  the  designer,  by  drawing  the 
tire  too  tight.  Machines  are  now  made  which  com- 
press the  tire  after  it  is  on  the  wheel  without  its 
having  been  previously  heated. 

According  to  Corbett,  p.  28,  continuous  tires 
were  adopted  for  the  coaches  before  they  were  used 
on  the  mails.  On  some  of  the  wide  wheels  of  the 
old  'stage-waggons,'  two  widths  of  strokes  were  put 
on  with  their  joints  overlapping. 

There  are  many  details  of  the  construction  of 
wheels  too  technical  to  be  entered  upon  here,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  good  reason  for 
making  the  tire  very  narrow  on  upright  wheels,  es- 
pecially as  a  somewhat  wide  tire  protects  the  rim 
of  the  wheel,  which  is  otherwise  liable  to  be  rubbed 
and  scratched.  If  it  projects  too  much  beyond  the 
rim  it  will  cast  up  the  mud.  There  is  no  advan- 
tage in  a  narrow  or  round  faced  tire  on  a  vertical 
wheel,  but  on  a  coned  wheel  there  is  an  advantage, 


46 


WHEEL 


CH.   Ill 


especially  on  a  hard  road,  inasmuch  as  the  grinding 
action  is  less  (see  page  42).     On  a  soft  road,  the 
narrow  tire  will  cut  in  and  cause  friction,  or  adhe- 
sion between  the  faces  of  the  rim  and  the  mud. 
The  coach  wrheel  shown  in  Fig.  26,  may  be  taken 

as  a  good  example,  not  being 
exaggerated  in  any  way,  having 
a  dish  of  ^  of  an  inch. 

There  are  reasons  outside  of 
the  purely  mechanical  questions 
of  draught  and  strength,  which 
induce  builders  to  dish  their 
wheels  and  to  give  them  the 
resulting  outward  Hare.  In  a 
brougham,  made  to  a  narrow 
track,  the  flare  of  the  wheels 
gives  more  room  for  the  bod)', 
and  in  all  carriages  the  flare  of 
the  wheels  throws  the  mud  away 
from  the  body.  A  carriage  with 
nearly  vertical  wheels  will  have 
its  panels  covered  with  mud  in 
wet  weather.  These  are  good 
reasons  for  the  practice  in  certain  cases,  but  as  a 
question  of  draught,  the  horizontal,  parallel  axles, 
with  straight  and  vertical  wheels,  are  the  best ;  and  on 
four-horse  coaches,  the  track  of  which  is  always  wide, 
a  close  approach  to  these  conditions  is  desirable. 

In  light  vehicles  the  points  of  the  axles  are  not 
only  turned  down,  but  they  are  also  turned  a  little 


Fig. 


CH.   Ill  SIZE    OF    WHEEL  47 

to  the  front  ;  this  is  called  the  '  o-ather'  of  the  axles. 
A  light  axle  will  spring  backward  when  the  draught 
upon  it  is  opposed  by  the  resistance  of  the  wheel 
on  the  ground  ;  the  axle-arms  will  be  no  longer  in  a 
straight  line,  and  the  wheels  will  not  be  parallel  to 
each  other  or  to  the  centre  line  of  the  carriage, 
hence  they  will  run  against  the  nuts  instead  of 
against  the  collars  ;  and  if  the  axle-arm  be  tapered, 
the  motion  of  the  carriage  causes  a  pressure  against 
the  front  side  of  the  taper,  and  increases  this  ten- 
dency, so  that,  to  counteract  it,  the  gather  must  be 
still  more  increased. 

Wheels,  when  not  parallel,  will  rub  sideways  upon 
the  road  and  increase  the  resistance.  When  an 
old  carriage  has  axles  badly  bent,  the  wheels  may 
be  observed  to  plough  up  the  mud  on  the  inside  of 
their  rims  as  they  move  along.  Cabs  in  a  crowded 
city,  which  frequently  have  collisions,  sometimes 
have  their  axles  bent  back  in  this  way,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  their  tires  are  polished  from  being  par- 
tially dragged  on  the  surface  of  the  road  instead 
of  running  with  a  true  rollino-  motion.  In  coaches 
which  have  very  strong  axles  and  parallel  arms,  the 
necessity  for  gather  does  not  exist,  and  it  is  not 
given  ;  but  in  overhauling  a  coach,  or  in  buying  one 
second-hand,  it  is  important  to  notice  whether  or 
not  the  axles  are  in  the  least  decree  bent  backward. 

The  height  of  coach  wheels  varies,  in  the  best 
examples,  from  4  ft.  2  in.  to  4  ft.  4  in.  for  the  hind 
wheels,  and  from  3  ft.  2  in.  to  3  ft.  4  in.  for  the  front 


48 


SPRINGS 


CH.   Ill 


ones.  '  Nimrod'  gives  4  ft.  8  in.  as  a  usual  height  of 
the  hind  wheels  in  old  coaches.  The  wheels  of  an 
American  Concord  coach  are  5  ft.  1  in.  and  3  ft.  10 
in.  There  are  usually  twelve  spokes  in  the  hind 
wheels  and  ten  in  the  front  wheels,  but  in  the  old 
English  coaches  there  were  frequently  fourteen  and 
twelve,  respectively,  and  these  are  the  numbers  in 
the  Concord  wheels.* 

What  is  now  usually  called  the  'patent  wheel/ 
the  characteristic  of  which  is  a  hub  formed  by  two 
iron  plates  applied  to  the  back  and  front  of  the 
spokes,  is  not  particularly  new  ;  it  is  described  in 
Adams's  book,  published  in  1837.  It  is  used  exten- 
sively on  business  wagons  but  not  on  fine  work. 


Springs. — Coaches  are  hung  upon  what  coach- 
ing men  usually  call 
telegraph  springs 
(because  they  were 
first  used  in  Eng- 
land  on  the  Man- 
chester 'Telegraph'),. 

but  known  by  coach- 

riG.  27.  J 

makers  as  platform 
springs,  which  permit  the  body  of  the  coach  to  be 
hung  low  (Fig.  27). 

*  The  following  dimensions  of  the  wheel  of  a  very  light,  one-man 
trotting  buggy,  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  coach 
wheels  :  height,  48  in.  ;  diameter  of  hub,  2i  in.  ;  diameter  of  axle. 
I  in.,    taper;   dish,  -f\  in.   from  outer  spoke;   swing  or  overhang  of 


CH.   Ill  SPRINGS  49 

They  are  fastened  by  clips  to  the  transom  bed  in 
front  and  directly  to  the  axle  behind,  and  the  body 
rests  upon  the  centres  of  the  cross  springs  and  is 
attached  to  them  in  the  same  way. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  body  is  attached  to 
the  springs  at  four  points  only,  and  that  these 
points  are  all  in  the  centre  line  of  the  coach.  This 
arrangement  permits  an  amount  of  rolling  motion, 
which  would  be  serious  were  the  springs  not  stiff, 
and  is  an  obvious  disadvantage,  which  is,  however, 
more  than  compensated  by  the  lowness  of  the 
body,  a  greater  height  of  which  would  increase  the 
liability  to  roll. 

The  four  springs  forming  this  combination  are 
connected  at  the  corners  by  shackles,  or  '  D's,' 
and  in  a  public-coach,  carrying  heavy  loads,  these 
shackles  should  be  as  short  as  possible,  otherwise 
the  body  will  sway  sidewise  too  much,  and  in  going 
down-hill  will  swing  forward,  taking  the  brake  away 
from  the  face  of  the  wheel,  and  in  going  up-hill  may 
move  back  enough  to  put  the  brake-block  against 
the  wheel.  If  they  are  long,  the  coach  will  ride 
somewhat  easier  and  the  body  will  be  lower.  These 
are   points   to  be   considered,   but,  on   the  whole,   it 

wheel,  3I  in.  ;  gather  \  in.  ;  tire,  I  in.  face  and  \  in.  thick  ;  spoke, 
i  by  2  in.  ;  rim,  ?  in.  The  swing  given  to  the  wheel  is  much  greater 
than  that  called  for  by  the  dish,  because  the  axle  being  light  the 
weight  of  a  man  on  the  centre  of  it,  where  the  spring  is  attached, 
will  spread  the  wheels  enough  to  ensure  a  plumb  spoke  with  this 
amount  of  swing.     There  are  fourteen  spokes. 

4 


50  SPRINGS  CH.   Ill 

is  better  to  make  the  shackles  short  and  close, 
giving  them  as  little  play  as  possible.  They  should 
be  covered  with  leather,  to  prevent  rattling. 

According  to  Corbett  (p.  28),  the  telegraph 
springs  were  used  on  coaches  before  they  were 
used  on  the  mails,  and  after  the  expiration  of  Vid- 
ler's  contract  in  1836,  they  were  put  on  the  mails, 
which  appear  to  have  been  hung  originally  with  a 
cross  spring  behind. 

Springs  are  always  made  of  several  plates,  or 
leaves,  which  give  more  elasticity  than  would  be  ob- 
tained with  one  plate  of  steel  of  the  same  strength, 
and  are  also  less  liable  to  break  from  a  sudden 
shock  or  rebound,  which  is  communicated  succes- 
sively to  the  plates. 

The  springs  are  fastened  to  the  bed,  and  to  the 
body,  by  clips,  which  embrace  them,  so  as  not  to 
have  holes  through  their  centres. 

In  many  business  wagons,  three-quarter  springs, 
shown  in  Fig.  28,  called  in  England  '  dennet  springs,' 

are  used.  The  front 
ends  of  the  side 
springs  are  fastened 
directly  to  the  body, 
or  to  the  carriage- 
part,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  there  are 
'  therefore    six   points 

of  attachment,  four  of  them  so  far  apart  side- 
ways   as    to    resist    a    rolling    motion    much    better 


CH.  Ill  POLE  51 

than  when  all  the  supports  of  the  body  are  in  one 
centre  line.  Since  a  backward  and  forward  motion 
of  the  body  is  prevented  by  the  attachment  of  the 
front  ends  of  the  springs,  the  brake-blocks  will  not 
be  carried  away  from  the  hind  wheels  in  the  way 
that  the  movement  of  the  shackles  of  the  ordinary 
springs  permits.  This  arrangement  would  be  prob- 
ably an  improvement  in  a  public-coach  and  it  is 
necessary  for  the  hind  axle  of  a  break  which  has  no 
perch,  since,  when  there  is  no  perch,  the  action  of  the 
brake  brings  a  great  strain  on  the  elliptic  springs. 

Pole. — The  pole,  which  fits  into  the  space  be- 
tween the  inside  futchells,  completes  the  carriage- 
part. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
coaching  men  as  to  the  proportions  of  the  pole. 
It  should  obviously  be  heavier  for  a  public-coach 
than  for  a  drag,  and  in  all  cases  should  be  strong 
enough  to  bear  safely  any  strain  that  can  come 
upon  it  in  going  down  a  hill  ;  the  best  of  coachmen 
can  hardly  avoid  an  accident  if,  on  a  steep  hill,  a 
pole  breaks. 

In  turning  round  and  getting  the  coach  on  the 
lock,  the  leaders  may  pull  nearly  at  right  angles  to 
the  end  of  the  pole,  and  if  anything  breaks  at  such 
a  time,  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  the  pole  than 
some  more  complicated  part  of  the  carriage,  as  it 
is  the  most  easily  repaired,  or  than  that  the  coach 
should  be  overturned,  as  might   happen   upon  side- 


52  POLE  CH.   Ill 

long    ground.     In    turning,   the    bend  of   a  flexible 
pole  will  indicate  the  danger  before  a  break  occurs. 

Some  drag  poles  are  not  plated  at  all  on  the 
underside,  and  some  public-coach  poles  are  plated 
throughout  their  whole  length,  which  makes  them 
stiff  and  inelastic.  The  best  way  is  to  plate  them 
for  two-thirds  of  the  length,  since  a  fracture  will 
naturally  occur  near  the  hinder  end,  and  to  use  a 
tough,  soft  iron,  not  too  heavy,  which  will  bend  and 
keep  the  pole  together,  even  if  the  wood  is  broken. 

The  places  at  which  a  pole  is  most  likely  to  break, 
are  where  it  leaves  the  futchells,  or  throuoh  the  hole 
for  the  pin,  which  is  just  behind  that  point ;  and  a 
light  plate  on  each  side,  extending  from  the  hinder 
end  of  the  pole  to  a  point  ten  or  twelve  inches  in 
front  of  the  ends  of  the  futchells,  is  of  service  and 
prevents  the  wear  of  the  pole  in  the  jaws  of  the 
futchells. 

The  proper  size  of  a  pole  at  a  point  two  feet  from 
the  splinter-bar,  is  3^  inches  wide  and  \Y/2  inches 
deep  for  a  public-coach,  and  somewhat  less  for  a  drag. 

The  pole  goes  between  the  plates  which  connect 
the  futchells  on  their  under  and  upper  surfaces,  and 
is  thus  stiffly  attached  to  the  fore-carriage.  A  pin 
passes  horizontally  through  the  futchells  and  the 
pole  and  makes  it  fast,  and,  since  by  it  the  leaders 
do  their  part  of  drawing  the  coach,  it  must  be 
strong.  Sometimes  a  second  pin  is  put  in  near  the 
hinder  end  of  the  pole  ;  a  proper  precaution  against 
accident. 


CH.   Ill  POLE  53 

In  the  majority  of  European  four-horse  vehicles, 
except  in  England,  the  leaders  do  not  draw  from 
the  point  of  the  pole,  but  by  means  of  a  chain,  or  a 
rope,  passing"  along  the  under  side  of  the  pole,  from 
a  hook  which  is  under  the  futchells.  This  hook  is 
sometimes  put  in  this  place  in  a  coach,  to  be  used 
in  case  six  horses  are  driven  ;  but  it  is  not  well 
to  have  it  there,  since,  should  a  wheel  horse  fall  and 
get  under  the  coach,  he  may  be  badly  torn  by  the 
hook. 

The  length  of  the  pole  should  be  9  feet  from  the 
front  of  the  splinter-bar  to  the  cross-head  of  the 
pole-head  or  crab.  If  it  is  longer  than  this  it  takes 
the  leaders  too  far  away  and  impairs  the  '  smart' 
appearance  of  the  turn-out.  French  carriage  poles 
are  usually  much  too  long. 

The  length  given  above,  for  the  pole,  is  proper 
for  sixteen  hand,  or  fifteen-three  hand,  horses  ;  if 
smaller  horses,  or  short,  cobby  horses  are  to  be 
driven  to  a  drag,  an  extra  pole,  two  or  three  inches 
shorter,  should  be  provided. 

When  the  coach  is  standing  on  a  level  pavement, 
the  end  of  the  pole  should  be  three  feet  from  the 
ground. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  a  short  pole  re- 
quires a  longer  cross-head,  or  else  the  pole-chains 
will  pull  too  much  sideways  from  the  horses'  necks. 
The  most  exag-o-erated  form  of  a  long  cross-head  is 
the  yoke  of  a  trotting  wagon,  which  is  so  long  as  to 
make  the  pole-straps  parallel  to  the  pole.     There  is 


54 


POLE-HEADS 


CH.    Ill 


a  regular  pattern  of  crab,  or  metal  mounting  of  the 
pole,  which  is  well  adapted  to  its  purpose  and 
should  be  adhered  to.     It  is  shown  in  Fig.  29,  and 

consists  of  a  kind 
of  sheath  which  fits 
on  the  end  of  the 
pole  and  is  fast- 
ened to  it  by  two 
bolts,  which  must 
be  strong,  since 
by  them  the  leaders  pull.  This  sheath  terminates 
in  a  hook  to  take  the  lead-bars.  At  the  root  of  the 
hook  is  the  cross-head,  which  is  free  to  turn  upon 
the  stem,  and  has  a  ring  at  each  end  into  which  the 
pole-chains  are  fastened.  The  arms  of  the  cross- 
head  should  be  about  six  inches  long  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  pole  to  the  rings.  A  strap,  attached  to 
the  pole,  passes  through  the  eye  on  the  point  of  the 
hook  ;  it  should  be  strong  and  always  kept  in  good 
order,  as  it  may  serve  to  prevent  the  lead-bars  from 
being  jerked  off  the  hook  in  case  of  an  accident 
with  the  leaders. 

In  many  French  four-horse  vehicles,  the  hook  is 
under  the  pole  ;  but  this  is  not  a  good  arrangement  ; 
the  bars  are  liable  to  come  off  unless  the  point  of 
the  hook  is  fastened  by  a  screw  to  the  pole,  which 
is  troublesome. 

The  whole  pole-head  should  be  of  the  best  steel, 
highly  polished.  On  a  public-coach  it  is  usually 
painted   black,   but    lately,   on  some  public-coaches, 


CH.  Ill  LEAD-BARS  55 

especially  in  France,  it  is  bright,  as  on  a  drag. 
This  looks  much  better,  and  it  is  really  but  little 
more  trouble  to  polish  it  than  to  keep  revarnishing 
it.  On  a  long  route,  however,  and  in  bad  weather, 
the  bright  steel  becomes  tarnished  toward  the  end 
of  the  day.  Of  course,  the  chains  must  correspond 
to  the  pole-head,  and  it  is  more  trouble  to  varnish 
them  than  to  brighten  them  by  shaking  in  a  bag. 
In  old  public-coaches  the  chains  were  usually  made 
fast  to  the  pole-head,  as  they  now  are  on  farm- 
wagons,  and  they  had  to  be  blackened. 

Pole-heads,  chains,  or  lead-bar  fittings,  should  al- 
ways be  of  bright  steel,  never  plated  with  silver  or 
with  brass.  The  plating  soon  wears  off  at  the 
rubbing  surfaces. 

Public-coaches,  or  private  coaches  on  long  trips, 
sometimes  carry  a  spare  pole  made  in  three  pieces 
to  screw  together,  the  joints  being  strengthened  by 
collars  which  slide  over  them.  This  pole  is  strapped 
to  the  perch.  Its  head  is  of  a  simple  form  and 
painted  black. 

Lead-Bars. — The  lead-bars  are  made  after  one 
regular  pattern.  Fig.  30  gives  a  better  idea  of 
them  than  any  description  can  give.  They  should 
be  rather  heavy  than  light.  The  main-bar  is  3  ft.  4 
in.  lone  ;  the  single-bars  are  2  ft.  11  in. 

The  D  fixture  on  the  main-bar  is  better  than  the 
eye  fixture  shown  alongside  of  it.  It  is  somewhat 
the  fashion  to  use  the  eye  for  drags  and  the  D  for 


56 


LEAD-BARS 


CH.   Ill 


public-coaches,  but  the  objection  to  the  eye  is  that, 
on    account  of   its    small    size,   it    may    get    caught 


^ 


/Qv 


=33  W^ 


Fig.  30. 


O) 


sideways  on  the  hook  and  twist  or  break  it.     This 
cannot  happen  with  the  D. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  D,  having  much  more 
play,  is  more  noisy.  This  is  a  slight  objection,  and 
at  night  it  is  an  advantage,  since  the  coachman  can 
tell  by  the  '  chatter  of  the  bars'  whether  or  not  his 
leaders  are  working-,  since  there  will  be  no  rattle  if 
they  are  pulling.  The  D  is,  therefore,  recommended 
for  both  drags  and  coaches. 

The  fixtures  of  the  single-bars 
have  eves  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
bars  ;  these  eyes  hook  on  the  ends 
of  the  main-bar,  and  there  are 
springs  which  prevent  them  from 
becoming-  unhooked.  These  springs 
are  usually  made  as  shown  at  A  in 
Fig.    31,    but   a   better    method,   de- 


vised by  Brewster  &  Co.,  is  to  have 
the  end  lengthened  into  a  loop, 
which  surrounds  the  stem  of  the  hook  as  at  B,  so 
as  to  keep  the  fitting  from  coming  off  should  it  be- 


CH.   Ill  LEAD-BARS  5/ 

come    loose.     These    springs    were    comparatively 
new  in  '  Nimrod's'  time.      (Malet,  p.  348.) 

The  fittings  of  the  bars  are  usually  secured  by 
screws,  and  the  bars  should  be  always  put  on  with 
the  screw-heads  up,  so  that  the  loss  of  a  screw  will 
be  noticed.  It  is,  however,  much  better  to  have  the 
fittings  secured  by  bolts  which  go  entirely  through 
them,  as  at  C,  and  are  riveted,  so  that  they  cannot 
possibly  come  oft. 

A  dangerous  accident,  which  not  infrequently 
happens,  is  to  have  the  fitting  on  the  end  of  the 
main-bar  come  off,  which  lets  the  single-bar  drop 
on  the  leader's  hocks  and  may  cause  even  the 
quietest  horse  to  kick  ;  therefore  the  method  of 
fastening  the  fittings  with  bolts  should  be  insisted 
on.  It  is  not  so  important  for  the  centre  fittings, 
since  their  coming  loose  cannot  do  much  harm. 

A  single  link,  or  three  or  four  short  links,  of  steel 
are  sometimes  used  to  connect  the  inside  hooks  of 
the  bars.*  This  should  never  be  done,  as  in  the 
event  of  a  horse  kicking  and  getting  his  leg  between 
the  main-bar  and  the  single-bars,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  release  him,  and  great  damage  may 
result. 

Such  an  arrangement  is  useless,  at  any  rate,  but 
if,  for  any  temporary  reason,  it  should  be  desired, 
merely  a  strap,  which  can  be  quickly  cut,  should  be 
used. 

*  This  is  as  old  as  '  Nimrod's'  time.     See  £ssajs,  Malet,  p.  191. 


Fig.  32. 


58  LEAD-BARS  CH.   Ill 

An  extra  main-bar  and  one  extra  single-bar  are 
carried  on  the  back  of  the  rumble.  They  are  usu- 
ally  strapped  on    as    shown    in    Fig.    32,    but   they 

are  sometimes  held 
in  steel  spring-racks. 
Straps  are  better  ;  the 
steel  springs  are  diffi- 
cult to  clean  and  the 
bars  sometimes  shift 
sideways  in  them.  The  extra  bars  should  be  always 
taken  of!  when  the  coach  comes  in  ;  else  they  will 
harbour  dust  and  soon  get  rusty. 

The   lead-bar   has   sometimes   been  made  in  one 

piece  (Fig.  $$),  which  is  objectionable,  not  only  be- 

^  cause  it  does  not  permit 

i1  '1   Ij  ti     the    free    action    of  the 

j.I(.    ,_  horse's  shoulder,  but  be- 

cause,  if  one  horse  is 
more  free  than  the  other  and  works  in  front,  the 
bar  is  oblique,  and  each  horse  has  his  collar  pulled 
sideways  on  his  neck,  which  is  certain  to  cause  sore 
shoulders. 

The  mails  in  old  times  carried  this  single-bar  with 
four  hooks  on  it,  as  a  spare  bar  in  case  of  breaking 
the  lead-bars.  ('  Nim rod's'  Essays,  Malet,  p.  190.) 
A  method  of  rigging  the  lead-bars,  frequently 
used  by  Italian  and  Swiss  vetturini,  is  well  adapted 
to  the  temporary  conversion  of  a  two-horse  car- 
riage into  one  for  four  horses.  A  rope  is  attached 
to  the   centre  of  the   front  axle  and   carried   alone 


CH.  Ill 


LEAD-BARS 


59 


the  under  side  of   the  pole,   from    which    it  is  sus- 
pended   at    intervals     by    straps     (hame-straps,    for 


Fig.  34. 

instance).  About  two  feet  behind  the  point  of  the 
pole,  this  rope  is  attached  to  the  centre  of  a  some- 
what lighter  line,  the  two  ends  of  which  are  made 
fast  to  a  bar,  3  ft.  9  in.  long,  corresponding  to  the 
main-bar.  To  the  end  of  this  bar  are  attached  the 
single-bars.  The  main-bar  is  held  up  by  straps, 
like  light  pole-pieces,  from  the  pole-head.  They 
may  go  to  the  end  of  the  bar  or  can  be  made  fast 
nearer  its  centre.  The  short  bridle  of  the  main- 
bar  can  be  replaced  to  advantage  by  a  chain. 

For    three    horses    the    lead-bars    are    made    as 
shown    in    Fig.    35.     The    long    arm   of   the    main- 


A 


c=r 


w- 


-§  w 


n 


Fig.  35. 


a 


EZJ 


=g  w- 


EZE 


~~w 


bar  is  twice  the  length  of    the  short    arm,   so  that 
all  three  horses  do  an  equal  share  of  the  work. 


60  LEAD-BARS  CH.  Ill 

The  steel  hook  of  the  bar  of  the  single  horse 
is  long  enough  to  bring  his  bar  out  to  the  line 
of  the  other  bars.  This  is  a  common  arrangement 
in  three-horse  ploughs. 


CH.   IV  6  I 


CHAPTER   IV 
BODY 

The  bodies  of  coaches  are  essentially  the  same, 
but  builders  vary  them  sufficiently  to  make  notice- 
able differences  in  their  proportions,  as  can  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  plates  of  coaches  in  the 
present  volume,  by  detaching  and  superposing  the 
sheets  of  transparent  paper  upon  each  other,  or 
upon  the  plates,  which  are  all  drawn  to  the  same 
scale. 

The  average  length  of  the  body  is  4  ft.  10  in., 
the  width  4  ft.  o  in.,  and  the  height  4  ft.  2  in.  The 
extreme  lengths,  as  shown  in  the  drawings,  are 
4  ft.  1 1  in.  for  the  longest,  and  4  ft.  8  in.  for  the 
shortest ;  these  are  outside  dimensions.  The  di- 
mensions within  these  limits  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
a  matter  of  taste,  but  extreme  shortness  should  be 
avoided,  since  it  leads  to  a  short  coupling  in  the 
under-carriage,  which  is  objectionable.  The  body 
should  be  made  as  light  as  is  consistent  with 
strength,  so  as  to  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
whole  coach  low.  Its  weight  is  usually  rather  more 
than  half  that  of  the  whole  coach,  the  irons  and 
cushions  of  the  roof-seats  being  included.  The 
roof  is  very  nearly  flat,  so  that  the  seats  can  be 
adapted  to  it,  and  for  convenience  in  carrying  bao-- 


62  BODY  CH.   IV 

gage.  The  sides  are  moderately  curved  in  both 
directions,  or  have,  what  coach-makers  call  the  '  cant' 
in  the  horizontal  direction,  and  the  '  turn-under"  in 
the  vertical  direction. 

The  '  Wonder,'  a  coach  much  admired  on  the 
Shrewsbury  road  in  1825,  built  by  Waude,  is  said 
to  have  had  perfectly  flat  sides.*  A  body  looks 
'  smarter'  if  it  has  not  too  much  curve.  The 
bottom  line  of  the  coach  should  be  between  the 
extreme  boat  curve  and  the  nearly  straight,  side 
and  bottom  lines,  connected  by  short  curves. 

The  doors  of  the  body  are  hinged  on  the  front 
edge,  unlike  the  doors  of  broughams  or  landaus,  so 
that  if  they  are  left  open  by  accident  they  will  swing 
shut  on  starting.  They  have  solid,  or  stable,  shut- 
ters in  addition  to  the  usual  glasses,  and  there  should 
be  some  way,  on  the  inside,  of  fastening  them  up 
by  buttons,  or  by  pulling  up  the  inside  glasses  tight 
against  them,  so  that  they  cannot  be  pushed  down 
from  the  outside  in  case  it  is  desirable  to  lock  up 
the  coach.  For  the  same  reason,  the  doors  have 
locks,  which  work  with  a  key  ;  in  addition  to  the 
usual  latches. 

The  inside  of  a  modern  public-coach  body  is  usu- 
ally not  lined,  but  finished  in  hard  wood,  and  it  has 
cushions  only.  Old  public-coaches  were  comfortably 
stuffed  and  lined  inside  and  had  arm-straps,  as  the 
inside  places  were  the  highest  priced. 

*  Old  Coaching  Days,  p.  37. 


CH.   IV  BODY  6^ 


0 


A  drag  is  plainly  lined,  and  there  is  nothing  more 
stylish  for  the  purpose  than  a  very  light  drab  cloth. 
There  should  be  straps  of  some  kind  on  the  under 
side  of  the  roof  to  hold  hats  or  any  similar  light 
thing's.  It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  make  the  inside 
of  a  coach  so  low  that  a  man  cannot  sit  in  it  with 
his  hat  on.  When  a  full  load  is  on  a  drag,  the  ser- 
vants have  to  go  inside,  and,  apart  from  the  ques- 
tion of  their  comfort,  it  does  not  look  well  to  have  the 
men  sitting  bare-headed  ;  and  if  they  are  required 
to  get  out,  they  should  be  ready  to  do  so  quickly, 
and  not  have  to  wait  to  put  on  their  hats.  For  this 
reason  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  wooden  seat 
should  be  not  less  than  3  ft.  8  in.  This  will  admit 
of  a  cushion  3  inches  thick,  and  will  give  a  height  of 
3  ft.  5  in.  from  the  top  of  the  cushion  to  the  under 
side  of  the  roof,  which  is  enough  for  a  tall  man  with 
his  hat  on.  If  the  top  of  the  wooden  seat  is  1 2  inches 
above  the  centre  of  the  floor,  the  whole  inside  height 
will  be  4  ft.  8  in.  This  is  apparently  greater  than 
the  outside  height  of  the  body  given  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter,  but  that  is  because  the  floor 
drops  inside  as  low  as  the  bottom  of  the  rocker. 

Many  of  the  coaches  in  England  in  the  early 
part  of  the  19th  century  were  uncomfortably  low,  and 
there  has  been  a  disposition  to  copy  them  in  modern 
drags.* 

*  '  The  inside  of  the  coach  was  very  small.  E.  had  to  sit  without 
his  hat,  and  he  is  not  particularly  tall.' — Extract  from  a  private 
Journal  of  Travel  in  England  in  1835. 


64  BOOTS  CH.   IV 

Boots. — The  boots  are  constructively  a  part  of 
the  body ;  they  vary  considerably,  being  made 
more  or  less  deep  according  to  the  taste  of  the  de- 
signer ;  shallow  boots  give  a  poor  air  to  a  coach, 
and  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  depth.  Their 
distance  below  the  top  of  the  body  should  be  such 
as  to  give  comfortable  leg-room  to  persons  sitting 
on  the  roof-seats,  and  for  that  1 6  inches  is  rig-ht. 
This  is  from  wood  to  wood,  and  does  not  count 
the  cushion.  The  hind  boot  is  about  2  feet  long, 
the  front  one  3  feet,  and  both  are  about  2  feet  deep. 
The  front  boot  should  be  from  1  to  2  inches  higher 
on  the  body  than  the  hind  boot,  as  that  always  gives 
a  '  smarter'  appearance,  and  prevents  the  appear- 
ance of  the  coach's  hanging  down  in  front,  when 
the  back  seats  are  not  occupied.  The  front  boot 
slopes  backward  from  the  root  of  the  foot-board, 
usually  about  7  inches.  This  may  be  varied,  but  it 
must  not  be  so  straight  that,  in  the  motion  of  the 
coach,  the  boot  will  touch  the  inside  roller-bolts, 
which  may  happen  if  the  spring-shackles  are  long. 
The  boots  are  4  inches  narrower  than  the  body. 
There  is  an  opening  into  the  front  boot  from  above, 
and  the  front  part  is  usually  hinged  at  the  top  so  as 
to  turn  up.  This  door  must  riever  be  hinged  at  the 
bottom,  else  it  may  fall  open  and,  striking  the  horses, 
occasion  an  accident. 

In  a  public-coach  the  front  of  the  boot  is  generally 
entirely  closed,  and  it  is  sometimes  covered  with 
iron  to  prevent  a  kicking  wheeler  from  knocking  it 


CH.   IV  BOOTS  65 

in  ;  in  this  case  the  boot  is  accessible  only  from 
the  top  by  lifting-  a  flap  which  is  under  the  feet  of 
the  persons  sitting-  on  the  box-seat.  While,  on  the 
score  of  safety,  it  may  be  well  to  make  a  public- 
coach  boot  in  this  way,  it  is  so  exceedingly  incon- 
venient for  a  drag,  that  it  is  better  to  have  a  door, 
but  always  hinged  at  the  top  and  with  a  lock,  or 
still  better  two  locks,  that  can  be  trusted  to  hold. 
On  a  race-course,  for  instance,  the  hind  boot  is  full 
of  the  lunch-boxes,  or  should,  at  any  rate,  never 
have  anything  dirty  put  into  it,  the  horse  clothing 
and  halters  must  be  in  the  front  boot.  It  is  diffi- 
cult for  the  grooms  to  get  out  these  articles  through 
the  small  opening  in  the  top,  under  the  feet  of  the 
person  sitting  on  the  box-seat  ;  but  after  the  horses 
are  taken  out,  the  front  of  the  boot  is  quite  acces- 
sible if  it  has  a  door. 

The  boot  may  be  made  accessible  from  the  inside 
of  the  body,  the  opening  being  closed  by  tlie  back 
of  the  front  seat,  which  is  hinged  or  made  to  come 
out  altogether.  In  old  travelling-carriages  this  ar- 
rangement  was  frequently  used,  to  permit  a  bed  to 
be  made  inside  of  the  carriage,  the  feet  of  the  per- 
son lying  on  it  extending  into  the  boot. 

A  coach  was  designed  by  Mr  W.  G.  Tiffany, 
and  built  for  him  by  Peters  of  London,  in  1868,  in 
which  the  sides  of  the  front  boot  turned  down,  being 
hinged  near  the  bottom  edge,  one  of  the  steps  serv- 
ing as  a  handle  to  the  lock,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  door  could  not  be  opened  unless  the  step  were 

5 


66 


BOOTS 


CH.   IV 


turned  edgewise,  which  would  prevent  any  one  from 
stepping  upon  it  unless  the  door  were  fastened. 
A  second  coach,  with  the  same  kind  of  boot,  was 
built  by  Laurie  &  Marker  in  1873,  and  both  were 
used  on  the  London  and  Brighton  road  by  Mr 
Tiffany  in  1873.*  This  arrangement  is  perhaps 
somewhat  complicated,  but  it  is  one  way  out  of  the 
difficulty  and  gives  convenient  access  to  the  boot. 

It  may  be  said  that  while  in  a  public-coach  (where 
horse  cloths,  or  anything  else,  may  be  put  in  the 
hind  boot)  the  front  boot  should  be  solid,  the  front 
boot  of  a  drag  may  have  a  door  well  secured. 

The  hind  boot  of  a  drae  has 
its  door  hinged  at  the  bottom 
in  such  a  way  that,  when  it  is 
open  and  horizontal,  its  inner 
surface  is  level  with  the  bottom 
of  the  inside  of  the  boot.  If  it 
is  higher,  the  boxes  which  be- 
long in  the  boot  will  not  slide 
out  over  it  unless  it  is  put  down 
altogether.  This  door  should 
have  iron  quadrants,  or  chains, 
which  hold  it  when  open,  in  a 
horizontal  position,  so  that  it  serves  as  a  table  for 
serving  lunch  (see  Fig.  36). 


V7?>^//////////?>///k 


Fig.   36. 


*  The  '  Peters'  coach  was  built  for  Mr  Tiffany  to  take  to 
Tunis,  and  the  seats  were  covered  with  pigskin,  the  first  time  that 
this  material  was  used  for  that  purpose. 


CH.   IV  BOX    AND    DRIVING-SEAT  67 

If  the  door  is  not  hinged  so  as  to  be  fair  with  the 
bottom  of  the  boot  when  horizontal,  it  may  have  a 
chain  and  hook,  as  in  a  dog-cart,  so  that  it  can  be 
let  down  entirely  in  order  to  get  out  the  boxes,  and 
afterward  hooked  up. 

The  door  of  the  hind  boot  of  a  public-coach  is  hung, 
not  at  the  bottom,  but  at  the  off  side,  so  as  to  be 
easily  opened  by  the  guard  to  take  out  parcels  ;  un- 
less, however,  a  coach  is  built  especially  for  a  public- 
coach,  it  is  better  to  hang  the  door  drag-fashion, 
and  the  coach  can  then  serve  both  purposes. 

In  some  of  the  old  public-coaches,  a  rack  on  which 
additional  packages  could  be  carried,  was  fitted 
behind  the  rumble,  and  it  was  placed  even  as  low 
as  the  bottom  of  the  boot,  in  which  case  the  boot 
was  opened  at  the  top,  as  was  also  the  case  for 
security  in  the  mail-coach. 

Box  and  Driving-Seat. — On  the  front  part  of 
the  front  boot  is  placed  the  driving-seat.  In  all 
coaches  it  is  supported 
by  solid  ends  or  risers, 
and  has  a  board  running 
crosswise  under  it,  so  as 
to  close  the  space  en- 
tirely. The  top  of  the 
bench    is    flat,     and    the  FlG     _ 

proper  shape  of  seat  for 

the   coachman   is   made  by  the  cushion.     The  best 
form  for  this  cushion  is  shown  in  Fig.   37.     It  may 


68  BOX    AND    DRIVING-SEAT  CH.   IV 

be  entirely  stuffed,  in  which  case  it  is  fastened  on 
by  two  straps  which  cross  on  top  of  it,  or  it  may  be 
made  with  box  sides  and  back,  like  the  driving 
cushions  of  a  landau  or  of  a  brougham,  and  fast- 
ened to  the  seat  by  a  strap  underneath.  The 
former  is  the  old-fashioned  coaching  style.  The 
seat  should  not  be  too  tlat,  nor  should  it  be  as 
steep  as  it  is  sometimes  made,  so  that  the  coach- 
man rather  leans  against  it  than  sits  on  it,  a  point 
that  will  be  referred  to  when  treating  of  the  Position 
on  the  Box.  On  a  public-coach  there  is  usually  a 
pocket  on  the  near  side  of  the  cushion.  The  iron 
rail  on  the  off  side  should  rise  above  the  cushion, 
to  prevent  the  coachman  from  being  thrown  off 
by  a  violent  jolt.  The  box-seat  has  a  back  which 
does  not  extend  behind  the  coachman's  cushion. 
It  is  sometimes  curved,  as  shown  in  Plates  VII.  and 
XIX.,  but  this  is  no  improvement.  It  is  frequently 
so  made  that  it  can  be  taken  off,  in  which  case, 
it  should  be,  when  in  place,  strapped  tightly,  other- 
wise it  may  yield  to  the  pull  of  a  passenger  who 
takes  hold  of  it  in  getting  up  or  down  with  the 
risk  of  giving  him  a  fall.  It  is  better  to  have  it  a 
fixture. 

Attached  to  the  upper  front  edge  of  the  boot 
(Fig.  38)  is  the  foot-board,  the  angle  of  which  is  of 
great  importance.  An  angle  of  33  degrees  with  the 
horizontal  is  the  best. 

Too  large  a  foot-board  is  uncouth  ;  in  the  old 
mails    it  was   both   short  and   narrow,   so'   that    the 


CH.   IV 


FOOT-BOARD 


69 


traces   could  be  readily  seen   by  the   coachman.      It 

should  be  large  enough  '  fore  and  aft'   to  keep  the 

toe  from  projecting 

beyond    it,   but    no 

larger ;     24    inches 

from  a  vertical  line 

touching   the    front 

edge  of  the  cushion 

is  correct. 

A  foot  -  board 
which  is  narrow, 
from  right  to  left, 
permits  the  coach- 
man    to     see     his 


Fig  38. 


horses  better  than  if  it  is  too  wide  ;  and  as  the 
passengers  do  not  want  to  walk  about  on  the  foot- 
board, there  is  no  reason  for  making  it  more  than 
46  inches  wide,  on  any  coach. 
On  the  hind  boot  is  placed 
the  rumble  (Fig.  39),  which, 
in  a  drag,  is  a  seat  for  two 
servants.  It  is  supported  by 
irons  at  its  ends,  and  is  en- 
tirely open  underneath.  It 
should  be  44  inches  long, 
which  length  does  not  make 
it  look  out  of  proportion  and 
will    orive    room    enough   for  IG'  39* 

three  slender  persons,  which  is  sometimes  very  con- 
venient with  a  full  load  on  top,  as  for  a  picnic  or 


?o 


RUMBLE 


CH.   IV 


races.  It  should  have  a  lazy-back,  which  can  be 
put  on  when  it  is  used  in  this  way,  and  there  should 
be  also  a  valance  of  patent  leather,  which  can  be 
buttoned  on  the  front  edge  of  the  seat.  These  are 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  of  Fig.  39.  When  the 
grooms  occupy  the  rumble,  neither  the  back  nor  the 
valance  should  be  used. 

On  a  public-coach  the  rumble  is  supported  by  a 
solid  bench  like  that  of  the  driving-seat ;  the  board 

at  the  back  joins  the  boot 
at  its  upper  angle,  and  the 
seat  is  60  inches  long,  so  as 
to  hold  three  persons  com- 
fortably. On  the  near  side 
is  a  cushion  (a  couple  of 
inches  higher  than  the  cush- 
ion  of  the  other  two  seats) 
for  the  guard,  which  ensures 
n  f  him    his    proper    place   and 

enables  him  to  see  over  the 
heads  of  the  passengers. 
Sometimes  a  public-coach  has  a  rumble  long  enough 
for  four  persons,  but  it  gives  a  clumsy  air  to  the 
coach.     This  seat  has  a  permanent  back. 

A  strap  with  a  loop  should  be  fastened  to  the 
under  side  of  the  back  roof-seat,  on  the  near  side, 
half-way  between  the  centre  and  the  end,  so  as  to 
come  between  the  end  passenger  and  his  neighbour, 
by  which  strap  the  guard  can  steady  himself  when 
standing  up  to  sound  the  horn. 


Fig.  40. 


PLATE    IV. 


*J^tV*>, 


*si35l 


2)liototi||ic.>  Uc-ni  etcluiup  hi  a  luiiiilitilct  [•ailed  '  -J  lie  4ooaeH.  HdJ'ui>c/c.> 
iv  ^JulitioaX  (l  oiiue-V.|icAa  'he.  HooM/cW;  xKiiitcU  ot  -*IaJ.  U'lcxiicii 
olilioi-itc   QXtaa'a -if »vu    H^-citc,   yfeollltAa,    1766. 

eJ  lieu    btvoiu    licit>oni>   in  tli c  luiMfct    CMi/O   iit.x>  a  mail-  hi    Hie    Uotvt  iKiofc. 

1  QivuU   lo-int    at   uuvoibeu    in    nic  boot  ofuveeaA  0 

'    -Hvlio-  [hv  Iua    int.it't<  tclird   a/un    l/»   quite    'tceeat  o. 

ii    25;  f.  l£.  19. 


CH. IV  BOOTS  71 

In  carriages  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  four  people  who  sat  inside,  two  more 
persons,  usually  pages,  or  persons  of  lower  rank, 
sat  sideways  in  the  door-ways,  facing  the  side  of  the 
road,  with  their  legs  in  a  kind  of  box  built  out  from 
the  side  of  the  carriage  and  not  unnaturally  called 
a  'boot,'  and  when  what  we  now  call  the  'boots' 
were  added  to  a  carriage,  the  name  went  with 
them.  The  front  boot,  which  was  the  support  of 
the  driving-seat,  must  have  had  a  closed  top,  but  in 
a  public-coach,  the  addition  behind  was  originally  a 
basket,  open  at  the  top,  fastened  upon  the  hind  axle, 
in  which  packages  and  passengers  were  carried.  If 
the  passengers  could  do  so,  they  sat  down,  but  if 
there  were  too  many  of  them  for  this,  they  stood 
up,  and  in  cold  weather  the  basket  was  half  full  of 
straw  to  keep  their  legs  warm. 

This  basket  is  shown  in  Plates  I.,  IV.,  V.,  and 
VI.  ;  *  it  was  later  replaced  by  a  wooden  box,  open 
at  the  top  ;  this  was  afterward  closed  at  the  top, 
the  passengers  sat  on  it,  and  it  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form.  In  the  early  coaching  books  we  read  of 
persons  in  the  hind  boot. 

In  Cross,  vol.  ii.  p.  6,  we  read  :   '  Now  the  guard 

*  In  a  plate  published  by  Edw.  Orme,  Bond  Street,  London,  in 
18 16,  of  '  The  Ghent  and  Brussels  Diligence,'  there  is  shown  a  basket 
behind,  another  on  the  top,  and  another  for  the  box-seat.  The 
coachman  is  on  the  roof,  his  reins  passing  over  the  heads  of  the 
persons  on,  or  in,  the  box.  The  flat,  shallow  basket  is  still  seen  on 
the  roof  of  broughams  fitted  up  for  station  work. 


J 2  ROOF-SEATS  CH.   IV 

'  had  taken  up  two  soldiers  on  the  road,  and  from 
'  good  feeling,  as  I  thought,  had,  not  long  before  we 
'  stopped,  put  them  into  the  hind  boot  and  covered 
'  them  up — the  boots  in  those  days  being  very  capa- 
'  cious  and  opening  at  the  top.'  This  happened  in 
January  1814.  The  guard's  object  was,  of  course, 
to  prevent  the  proprietor  from  knowing  that  he 
had  carried  the  soldiers  free,  or  else  had  pocketed 
their  fares. 

Again  in  Cross  (vol.  ii.'p.  81),  we  find  as  follows, 
where  an  old  coachman  is  speaking  of  sailors  just 
paid  off,  travelling  by  the  Portsmouth  coach  :    '  We 

*  used  to   set  'em   a-nVhting   in    the  rumble-tumble, 

*  when  they'd  be  sure  to  drop  something  worth 
'  picking  up.' 

The  whole  hind  boot  seems  to  have  been  called  the 
rumble.      The  name  is  now  applied  only  to  the  seat. 

Some  of  the  older  coachmen  called  it  the  '  dickey' 
(Cross,  vol.  iii.  p.  128),  but  that  name  is  now  applied 
to  the  driving-seat  of  a  carriage. 

Roof-Seats. — In  the  very  old  coaches  (Plates  V. 
and  VI.,  Hogarth  and  Rowlandson)  there  were 
no  seats  on  the  roof,  but  passengers  frequently 
sat  there,  clinging  on  as  they  best  could.  Seats 
were  afterward  added  in  the  form  that  we  have 
them  now,  and  finally,  so  many  accidents  were 
there  from  top-heavy  coaches,  that  a  certain  Mr 
Gammon  procured  the  passage  of  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment,   in    1 788,    prohibiting    coaches    from    carrying 


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O 

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CH.   IV  ROOF-SEATS  73 

more  than  six  persons  on  the  roof  and  two  on  the 
box  beside  the  driver.  * 

The  roof-seats,  therefore,  did  not  extend  much 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  roof,  but  later  they  were 
lengthened  so  as  to  hold  four.  These  roof-seats 
are  sometimes  called  the  '  gammon-boards,'  f  obvi- 
ously from  the  name  of  the  author  of  the  Act. 

In  the  present  coach,  the  roof-seats  are  fastened 
to  the  roof,  with  their  edges  fair  with  the  front  and 
back  parts  of  the  body.  To  carry  four  persons 
with  comfort  they  should  be  6  feet  long,  and  their 
length  may  be  practically  increased  without  adding 
to  their  apparent  size,  by  bending  the  side  irons 
outward,  six  inches  being  thus  easily  added. 

The  mail-coaches  had  no  hind  roof-seat  and  car- 
ried only  three  on  the  front  roof-seat,  and  down 
to  1870  drags  usually  had  seats  long  enough  for 
only  three,  and  extending  slightly  beyond  the  edge 
of  the  roof.  These  seats  are  now  uniformly  made 
to  hold  four  ;  and  while  the  width  of  the  load  on 
top  does  undoubtedly  detract  somewhat  from  the 
'  smart'  appearance  of  the  coach,  the  additional  ac- 
commodation more  than  makes  up  for  it,  and 
when  only  three  people  are  up,  they  have  a  com- 
fortable abundance  of  room  and  do  not  make  the 
load  look  really  much  wider  than  if  they  were 
crowded  together. 

*  Brighton  and  its  Coaches,  p.  25. 

f  'Nimrod,'  Road,  p.  17,  calls  the  hind  roof-seat  the  'gammon- 
board.' 


74  FOOT-STOOLS  CH.   IV 

The  roof-seats  have  backs,  which,  on  a  drag,  are 
covered  on  both  sides  with  patent  leather ;  on  a 
public-coach,  with  the  same  covering  as  that  on  the 
seats.  On  a  drag-,  the  standards  should  be  hinged 
just  above  the  cushion,  so  that  they  can  be  turned 
down  when  the  seats  are  not  occupied, — which 
should  always  be  done.  On  a  public-coach,  the 
standards  are  usually  fixed. 

On  a  roof-seat  for  four,  the  outside  persons  have 
their  feet  partially  unsupported,  and  on  public-coaches 
it  is  usual  to  extend  a  board  on  both  sides  so  as  to 
provide  a  footing.  It  is  somewhat  clumsy  and  very 
much  in  the  way  in  getting  up,  and  is  commonly 
omitted  in  drags  or  made  very  small. 

As  the  roof-seat  is  usually  somewhat  high  for  a 
lady,  it  is  well  to  have  two  boxes  to  fit  on  the  top 
of  the   boot,    as   shown    in    Fig.    41,    so    made    that 

they  cannot  readily  slip  off,  and 


C^str-^ —^      yet  can  be  pushed  sideways  to 


^  accommodate    the   persons    sit- 

Fig.   41.  r 

ting  there.  If  two  ladies  are  in 
the  middle,  the  boxes  can  be  put  close  together, 
so  as  not  to  occupy  the  whole  foot  room.  A  similar 
arrangement  is  convenient  for  the  box-seat.  Car- 
pet foot-stools  serve  the  same  purpose,  but  they  are 
always  slipping  about,  falling  off,  and  getting  lost. 

The  tops  of  the  boots  and  the  foot-board  should 
be  covered  with  perfectly  plain,  single-coloured  oil- 
cloth, kamptulicon,  or  india-rubber.  The  foot-board 
sometimes  has,  in  addition,  a  perforated  india-rubber 


CH.  IV  PAINTING    AND    LETTERING  75 

mat,  which  must  be  firmly  fastened  on,  since  acci- 
dents have  happened  from  its  being  pushed  off  by 
the  feet  and  frightening  the  wheelers  by  falling  on 
their  backs. 

On  some  public-coaches  running  out  of  London, 
there  is  a  seat  for  three  persons  on  the  middle 
of  the  roof, — 'the  knife-board,' — but  it  makes  the 
coach  top-heavy,  and  is  a  dangerous  arrangement 
not  to  be  commended. 

PAINTING    AND    LETTERING 

Coaches  are  usually  painted  in  two  colours  ;  the 
colour  chosen  for  the  body  is  on  the  quarter  panels, 
the  whole  of  the  door,  and  the  panel  of  the  hind 
boot. 

The  colour  of  the  carriage-part  is  on  the  risers  of 
the  box-seat  (also  on  the  risers  and  panel  of  the 
rumble,  in  a  public-coach),  the  under  side  and  edge 
of  the  foot-board,  and  on  any  portion  of  its  upper 
surface  not  covered  with  kamptulicon,  on  all  the 
carriage-part  including  the  springs,  and  on  the  long 
rocker-bed  which  runs  under  the  body  and  really 
forms  a  part  of  it. 

The  upper  panels,  the  sides  of  the  boots,  the 
front  of  the  front  boot,  and  the  roof,  are  always 
black. 

All  iron-work  not  on  the  wood,  such  as  the  stand- 
ards of  the  rumble,  steps,  seat-rails,  roller-bolts, 
hub-bands  and  plates,  shoe,  chain,  and  ladder,  is 
black.     To  this  rule,  the  springs  are  an  exception, 


j6  PAINTING    AND    LETTERING  CH.   IV 

but  their  shackles  are  usually  black,  or  are  covered 
with  black  leather. 

The  rule  of  painting  the  panel  of  the  hind  boot 
the  same  colour  as  the  body  is  not  invariable  ;  it 
is  frequently  the  same  as  the  colour  of  the  carriage- 
part,  as  in  the  mail-coaches.  The  choice  of  the 
colour  is  somewhat  a  matter  of  taste,  depending  on 
which  colour  will  look  the  best  when  the  coach  is 
seen  from  behind.  If  the  body-colour  is  light,  it  is 
put  upon  the  panel  ;   not  if  it  is  dark. 

A  public-coach  usually  has  no  striping.  A  drag 
may  have  striping,  preferably  black,  at  the  root  of 
the  spokes,  on  the  rims  of  the  wheels,  round  the 
doors,  and  on  the  box-seat  risers,  and  a  lined  panel 
on  the  under  side  of  the  foot-board.  The  corners 
ot  the  wood-work  of  the  carriage-part  are  some- 
times moulded  and  striped  :  in  this  case  some  of 
the  bolt-heads  and  clips  are  black. 

The  only  other  ornamentation  on  a  drag  is  the 
monogram,  or  the  crest,  of  the  owner,  painted  on 
the  crest-panel  (which  is  the  narrow  panel  under 
the  window),  and  the  devices  of  any  coaching  clubs 
to  which  the  owner  may  belong,  which  are  painted 
on  the  door  under  the  crest-panel,  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  panel  of  the  hind  boot ;  or  the  crest,  or 
monooram  alone,  may  be  there. 

A  public-coach  has  painted  on  it  the  names  of  the 
places  between,  and  through  which,  it  runs. 

The  names  of  the  two  ends  of  the  route  are 
on  the  panel  of  the  hind  boot,  the  more  important 


CH.   IV  PAINTING    AND    LETTERING  J  J 

one  first ;  *  for  instance,  '  London  and  Brighton'  in 
three  lines,  the  '  and'  being  in  letters  ;  not  the  sign 
&.  On  the  boots,  near  the  lower  edges,  are  the 
names  of  places  on  the  road.  On  the  crest-panel  of 
the  door  are  the  same  names  as  on  the  hind  panel, 
but  without  the  'and.'  Sometimes  the  name  and 
address  of  the  proprietor  are  on  the  crest-panel  ; 
during  a  certain  period  in  the  old  coaching  days 
this  was  required.  On  the  risers  of  the  driving- 
seat  and  of  the  rumble,  are  the  names  of  the  offices 
or  inns  at  the  ends  of  the  route.  For  instance, 
the  Paris  and  Poissy  coach  has  '  herald  office'  on 
one  riser  and  '  hotel  de  l'esturgeon'  on  the  other. 

The  name  of  the  coach  is  in  large  letters  on  the 
back  of  the  rumble. 

Colonel  Kane's  New  York  and  Pelham  coach 
had  on  the  crest  panels  union— port  on  the  near  side, 
and  pelSSu^br^idge  on  the  °^  side  ;  and  on  the  riser 
of  the  box-seat,  the  name  of  the  coach  '  tally-ho' 
with  a  Maltese  cross  above  it.  There  was  '  NEW 
YORK  and  PELHAM'  on  the  hind  boot  panel 
and  no  names  on  the  boots.  The  lettering  was 
in  gold  and  black, — the  coach  being  yellow, — and 
was  very  quiet  and  in  good  taste. 

Some  coaches,  both  in  England  and  in  France, 
have  names  of  places  on  the  lower  panels  also  of 
the   body,   near   to    and  following  the   curved  lines 


*  This  rule  was  not  universal  in  the  old  coaches  ;  in  many  of  the 
old  prints  the  name  of  the  less  important  place  comes  first. 


78  PAINTING    AND    LETTERING  CH.  IV 

of  the  panels  ;  but  this  is,  perhaps,  putting  too  much 
on  the  coach.  Sometimes  a  device,  such  as  a  comet 
or  a  meteor,  suggestive  of  the  name  of  the  coach, 
is  painted  on  the  upper  panels,  but  there  is  never 
any  lettering  there. 

In  the  old  coaching  days,  the  name  of  the  princi- 
pal place  to  which  the  coach  ran,  was  often  painted 
on  the  under  side  of  the  foot-board,  so  that  the 
coaches,  when  standing-  under  a  shed  at  a  large 
coaching  inn,  could  be  readily  distinguished  ;  or 
else  the  name  of  the  coach  was  there  painted,  a 
fashion  which  has  been  copied  in  the  mail-coaches 
recently  built  in  Paris. 

The  mail-coaches  in  England  were  all  painted 
alike  ;  the  under-carriage  red,  the  body  a  maroon 
or  claret  colour.  On  the  side  of  the  front  boot 
was  the  cipher  G.R.  or  V.R.,  of  the  sovereign,  in 
large  interlaced  gold,  script  letters  ;  on  the  side  of 
the  hind  boot  the  number  of  the  coach  {(^/p.  jg), 
in  similar  letters.  On  the  crest-panel,  which  was 
deep,  were  the  names  of  the  towns  between  which 
the  mail  ran,  and  the  words  'Royal  Mail,'  in  gold. 
On  the  four  black  panels  were  the  stars,  of  the 
Thistle  on  the  near  side,  and  of  the  Bath  on  the 
off  side,  of  the  front  boot ;  of  the  Garter  on  the 
near  side,  and  of  St.  Patrick  on  the  off  side,  of 
the  hind  boot ;  on  the  doors  the  royal  arms  ;  on 
the  hind  boot  panel  the  names  of  the  places  be- 
tween which  the  mail  ran.  On  the  iron  legs  sup- 
porting the  guard's  seat  on  a  mail-coach,  there  was 


CH.   IV  PAINTING    AND    LETTERING  79 

no  place  on  which  the  name  could  be  painted,  and 
while  some  of  the  mails  had  names,  many  of  them 
had  none. 

In  Malet's  Annals  of  the  Road  there  is  an  ad- 
mirable drawing,  in  colour,  of  a  mail-coach,  which 
distinctly  shows  all  these  details,  and  in  the  same 
book  there  is  a  drawing  of  a  stage-coach  with  body 
and  carriage-part  painted  the  same  colour. 

The  colours  of  the  mail-coaches  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Reunion  Road  Club  of  Paris,  and 
all  its  coaches  are  painted  maroon  and  red,  with  the 
red  on  the  panel  of  the  hind  boot. 


8o  CH.  V 


CHAPTER   V 
ACCESSORIES 

Brake. — Coaches  are  now  always  fitted  with  a 
brake,  consisting  of  blocks  which  can  be  pressed 
against  the  tires  of  both  hind  wheels.  The  blocks 
are  fixed  to  arms  projecting  from  a  horizontal  shaft 
which  runs  across  under  the  body  of  the  coach, 
turning  in  suitable  supports  or  brackets  fastened 
to  the  under  side  of  the  body.  An  arm  projecting 
upward  from  this  shaft,  passes  into  the  body  and 
is  pulled  forward  by  a  rod  leading  from  the  front 
boot  and  connected  with  the  handle  of  the  brake, 
the  upper  end  of  which  is  on  the  off  side  of  the 
boot. 

Every  maker  has  his  own  way  of  carrying  out 
these  details,  but  that  arrangement  in  which  only 
the  upper  part  of  the  brake-handle  is  visible  from 
the  outside  is  the  neatest. 

The  block  which  rubs  against  the  wheel  may  be 
made  of  iron,  or  of  wood  covered  with  some  ma- 
terial, or  of  wood  alone.  Iron  is  the  least  satis- 
factory, because  it  does  not  take  a  good  hold  of  the 
wheel,  and  because  it  frequently  makes  a  noise  ;  it 
lasts,  however,  a  long  time.  Wood  covered  with 
leather  holds  well,  but  the  leather  requires  frequent 
renewal  and  is  almost  always  ragged  and  torn. 


CH.   V  BRAKE  8 I 

The  best  leather  for  this  purpose  is  old  belting, 
which  is  flat  and  somewhat  oily.  Pieces  of  old 
india-rubber  tires,  fastened  on  a  wooden  block,  are 
much  used  by  French  builders  and  make  a  good 
brake  ;  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  best  material, 
however,  is  a  tough  wood,  like  chestnut,  used  alone  ; 
oak  is  too  hard  and  squeaks  almost  as  loudly  as 
iron.  The  soft  wood  wears,  but  it  can  be  easily 
replaced.  The  arm  should  terminate  in  an  iron 
socket,  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  42,  the  hollow 
beinor  somewhat  smaller  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top,  and  the 
block  being-  made  to  fit  it.  A 
dozen  blocks  can  be  made  at  a 
time  by  any  carpenter,  and  kept 
ready  for  use.  When  a  block  is 
worn,  it  can  be  knocked  out  by  a  blow  from  below, 
and  the  new  block  dropped  into  its  place  ;  no  other 
fastening  being  necessary.  Of  course,  both  blocks 
should  be  renewed  at  the  same  time,  so  that  they 
shall  bear  equally  on  both  wheels. 

Blocks  of  this  shape  in  solid  rubber  can  be  bought 
ready  made,  from  the  manufacturers. 

The  handle  of  the  brake  moves  past  a  toothed 
rack,  and  when  the  block  is  pressed  against  the 
wheel,  a  sharp  projection  on  the  side  of  the  handle 
engages  with  one  of  the  teeth  and  holds  the  brake 
against  the  wheel.  To  release  the  brake,  the 
handle  is  pushed  outward,  its  length  giving  it 
enough  spring  for  that  purpose,  and  the  projection 


82 


BRAKE 


CH.   V 


A         K 

Fig.  43. 


is  disengaged  from  the  tooth.  The  shape  of  the 
teeth  of  the  rack  is  important.  If  they  are  too 
square,  as  in  A,  Fig.  43,  the  handle  will  jump  out 
with  the  shaking  of  the  coach  ;  if  they 
are  cut  back  too  much,  as  in  B,  it  will 
be  difficult  to  disentraore  the  handle. 
This  should  be  carefully  looked  to  in  a 
new  coach,  since  either  fault  is  serious. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among 
coaching  men  as  to  whether  the  brake- 
handle  should  move  forward  or  backward 
to  put  on  the  brake.  Fig.  44  shows  the 
two  arrangements.  In  A,  the  handle, 
when  the  break  is  off,  is  far  forward  and 
down  ;  to  reach  it,  the  coachman  must  lean  for- 
ward somewhat,   but  he  can  exert  a  crreat   deal  of 

force  upon  it  as  he  pulls 
it  back.  In  its  off  posi- 
tion it  is  much  in  the  way 
in  getting  up  and  down. 
If  it  is  placed  further  back 
to  avoid  this  difficulty, 
the  arm  of  the  coachman, 
when  he  has  the  handle 
nearly  back,  and  needs  to 
exert  the  most  power,  is  in  the  worst  position  for 
so  doing.  If  the  handle  works  by  pushing  instead 
of  pulling,  as  shown  in  B,  it  is  always  out  of  the 
way,  and  in  putting  on  the  brake,  the  coachman 
has  to  exert  the  least  force  when  the  handle  is  first 


Fig.  44 


CH.   V  BRAKE  83 

moved  ;  as  he  requires  to  exert  more  force,  his  arm 
is  constantly  getting  into  a  better  position  to  do  so, 
and  during  the  whole  operation,  the  body  is  much 
less  disturbed, — an  advantage  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  all  movements  in  driving  should  be  as 
little  noticeable  as  possible.  I  prefer  decidedly  the 
brake  which  works  forward,  and  many  brakes  are 
now  made  in  that  way,  but  the  advantages  seem  to 
be  somewhat  evenly  divided. 

The  handle  should  be  flexible  sideways,  enough 
to  enable  it  to  be  pushed  off  by  pressing  the  outside 
of  the  riofht  arm  against  it. 

The  brake-blocks  should  be  applied  to  the  front 
of  the  wheel,  because  the  rod  running  to  them  is 
thereby  shorter  and  consequently  lighter,  and  be- 
cause if  applied  to  the  back  they  will  work  up  out 
of  the  sockets  by  the  action  of  the  wheel,  unless  the 
sockets  have  their  lar^e  ends  down,  in  which  case 
the  blocks  will  drop  out  if  not  fastened.  The 
brake  should  be  applied  at  a  point  of  the  tire  level 
with  the  axle.  If  it  is  not  exactly  at  that  point,  it  is 
better  to  have  it  a  little  below  it,  so  that  when  the 
brake  is  put  on,  the  springs  of  the  coach  will  help 
to  keep  up  the  pressure  ;  whereas,  if  it  is  above  the 
line  of  the  axle,  every  time  that  the  body  of  the 
coach  jumps  up,  on  a  rough  hill,  the  pressure  of  the 
brake  will  be  for  the  moment  diminished. 

It  was  a  long  time  before  the  brake,  which  was 
first  used  on  the  Continent,  was  adopted  in  Eng- 
land, the  older  coaches  having  the  shoe  only,  but  in 


84  BRAKE  CH.  V 

America  it  was  used  early  in  this  century  on  heavy 
wagons,  and  was  worked  by  a  handle  at  the  back 
by  the  wagoner,  who  was  on  foot. 

The  majority  of  Continental  carriages  and  coaches 
have  a  wheel  by  which  the  brake  is  applied,  but  it  is 
too  slow  in  its  operation,  requiring  several  turns, 
and  therefore  is  not  nearly  so  good  as  the  direct 
acting  handle,  and,  moreover,  it  is  frequently  so 
placed  that  the  coachman  has  to  stoop,  or  to  lean 
sideways  to  take  hold  of  it,  which  is  objectionable, 
since  he  should  not  change  his  position  on  the  box. 

The  brake  is  also  sometimes  so  arranged  that  it 
can  be  worked  from  the  back  of  the  coach  by  a 
groom,  as  well  as  from  the  front ;  but  this  is  entirely 
unnecessary,  since  the  coachman  should  be  com- 
petent to  work  the  brake  himself. 

Paris  omnibuses  use  the  '  Lemoine  brake,'  which 
is  worked  by  the  hind  wheel  itself.  On  the  inner 
end  of  the  hub  of  this  wheel  there  is  a  flanged  pulley, 
round  which  a  hemp  cord  is  passed  three  or  four 
times.  That  part  of  the  cord  which  is  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  hub  is  attached  directly  to  the  ordinary 
brake  ;  the  other  end  passes  to  a  foot  lever  at  the 
coachman's  seat.  As  long-  as  the  cord  is  slack,  the 
pulley  runs  round  inside  of  it  freely,  but  as  soon  as 
the  forward  end  of  it  is  tightened  by  the  coachman, 
the  pulley  winds  up  the  cord  and  puts  on  the  brake 
with  great  force.  The  cord,  on  the  side  against  the 
pulley,  is  lined  with  blocks  of  wood  or  leather.  It 
is  useful  in  crowded  streets,  and  it  has  been  applied 


CH.   V 


SKID 


85 


to  some  coaches,  but  is  so  rarely  needed,  that  it  is 
an  unnecessary  addition. 

In  the  American  (Concord)  coach,  the  brake  is 
worked  by  the  foot,  and  there  being  no  rack  to  hold 
it,  the  continued  pressure  of  the  foot  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  brake  on.  With  this  arrangement  the 
driver  is  able  to  increase  or  diminish  the  pressure 
in  crossing  the  many  catch-water  banks  which  are 
met  with  on  American  hilly  roads.  In  some  late 
English  coaches  there  is  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  brake  can  be  put  on  by  the  foot,  the  handle  at 
the  same  time  moving  back  and  eno-a^ino-  in  the 
rack.  It  is  disengaged  by  the  hand  in  the  ordinary 
way.  This  does  very  well  for  an  omnibus,  which 
has  to  stop  frequently  in  crowded  streets,  but  it  is 
certainly  not  necessary  on  a  coach  ;  as  has  been 
pertinently  said  by  an  eminent  coaching  authority, 
1  let  the  coachman  drive  with  his 
'hands  and  not  with  all  fours.' 

A  left-handed  coachman  may  have 
his  brake-handle  at  his  left  side,  be- 
tween his  cushion  and  the  box-seat. 

Even  with  a  brake,  the  coach 
should  have  a  skid  or  shoe,  to  carry 
one  wheel,  on  a  hill  that  is  too 
steep  for  the  brake  alone  to  be  de- 
pended on.  The  skid  should  have 
continuous  sides,  as  in  Fig.  45,  and  not  merely  four 
lugs  standing  up,  as  in  Fig.  46,  since  a  skid  of  the 
latter  form  is  much  more  apt  to  come  off  of  the 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46. 


86  SKID  CH.   V 

wheel.  The  bottom  of  the  skid  is  usually  made  not 
much  wider  than  the  tire,  but  it  is  better  to  have  a 
light  plate,  at  least  6  inches  wide,  welded  *  to  it,  as 
this  tears  up  the  road  much  less  ;  the  under  side  of 
the  plate  should  be  rounded  up  along  all  its  edges. 

A  strong  chain  attaches  the  skid  to  the  centre  of 
the  front  axle,  and  is  of  the  proper  length  to  keep 
the  skid  vertically  under  the  centre  of  the  wheel 
when  in  use.  It  is  better  to  have  the  chain  an  inch 
too  long  than  an  inch  too  short,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  skid  from  coming  off  of  the  wheel.  A  hook, 
large  enough  to  hook  round  the  rim  of  the  wheel 
(Fig.  47,  A),  and  covered  with  leather,  is  sometimes 
attached  by  another  chain  to  the 
same  part  of  the  axle.  This  is 
hooked  on  the  rim  of  the  wheel  be- 
low where  the  brake  touches  it,  and 
holds    the    wheel    in    case    the    skid 

comes  off.     Instead  of  having-  a  large 
Fig.  47. 

hook,    the   chain   itself  is   sometimes 

made  sufficiently  long  to  go  round  the  rim,  that 
part  of  it  which  touches  the  rim  being  covered  with 
leather,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47,  B.  At  the  end  of  the 
leather-covered  portion,  there  is  a  small  hook  which 
goes  into  one  of  the  links  of  the  chain. 

The  hook  is  perhaps  an  almost  unnecessary  addi- 
tion, yet  on  a  public-coach  running  over  steep  hills, 
it  is  safer  to  have  it. 


*  The  objection  to  bolting  it  on  is,  that  the  bolt-heads  wear  off. 


CH.    V 


SKID 


87 


The  skid,  when  not  in  use,  should  hook  on  the 
body  of  the  coach,  just  behind  the  bracket  of  the 
brake-arm.  Sometimes  the  hook  for  the  skid  is 
worked  on  this  bracket.  It  must  be  far  enough 
back  to  keep  the  bight  of  the  chain  entirely  off  the 
ground.  A  leather  loop  is  fastened  to  the  body  to 
take  the  hook  shown  in  Fig.  47. 

In  English  coaches  the  hook  and  loop  are  on  the 
near  side  of  the  coach,  because  the  skid  is  put 
under  the  near  wheel.  In  America,  where  we  drive 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  road,  the  skid  should  be 
put  under  the  off  wheel,  for  the  reason  that  the  skid, 
holding  very  tightly  to  the  ground,  acts  almost  as  if 
it  were  a  fixed  point,  and  the  tendency  of  the  force 
exerted  by  the  horses  will 
be  to  pull  on  the  chain 
in  a  straight  line  from 
that  point ;  the  coach 
will  therefore  slide  over 
to  the  side  away  from  the 
skid,  which  should  be, 
therefore,  always  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  road  ; 

if  it  is  on  the  upper  side,  the  coach  will  be  constantly 
sliding  toward  the  gutter  (see  Fig.  48). 

The  reader  can  satisfy  himself  that  this  is  so,  by 
putting  a  skid  on  any  four-wheeled  carriage  and 
then  pulling  the  carriage  over  a  smooth,  level  pave- 
ment, such  as  asphalt. 

Attention    is    especially    called     to    this,    because 


Fig.  48. 


88  ICE-SKID  CH.   V 

builders  in  this  country  have  blindly  followed  the 
English  fashion  of  putting-  the  skid  on  the  near  side, 
ignoring  the  fact  that  we  drive  on  the  off  side  of 
the  road. 

It  being  the  duty  of  the  guard  on  a  public-coach, 
and  of  the  second  man  on  a  drag,  to  put  on  the 
skid,  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  it  on  the  near 
side,  but  it  is  used  so  rarely  that  this  is  of  little  im- 
portance. 

A  skid  attached  to  a  rod  has  been  devised,  that 
can  be  worked  by  a  cord  or  light  chain  and  dropped 
under  the  wheel,  which  would  then  run  up  on  it  and 
thus  save  a  man's  getting  down  to  put  it  on,  but 
the  arrangement  has  not  found  favour  in  practice. 

It  has  been  also  proposed  to  have  the  chain  which 
holds  the  skid,  so  long:  that  the  skid  can  drae 
behind  the  wheel.  By  a  hook  and  ring  it  may  be 
shortened  to  the  proper  length  to  go  under  the 
wheel,  and,  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  the  rine  beino- 
knocked  off  the  hook,  the  wheel  will  run  off  the 
skid  without  its  being  necessary  to  back  the  coach. 

The  ordinary  skid  does 

not    hold    on    ice,   and    in 

Switzerland     an     ice-skid, 

shown  in  Fig.  49,  is  used. 

It  is  a  link  about  28  inches 

long,     with    chisel-shaped 

49  teeth.     The  wheel  rests  in 

the  opening,  and   the  ring  can  be  shifted  to  either 

end,  so  as  to  use  one  or  the  other  set  of  teeth. 


CH.   V  DRAG-STAFF  89 

A  chain  wrapped  round  the  rim  of  the  wheel  and 
round  the  ordinary  skid  when  the  skid  is  on  the 
wheel,  may  be  used  in  an  emergency.  Icy  roads 
are  always  dangerous  to  a  coach  and  alarming  to 
the  coachman. 

Some  Swiss  travellino-carriaoes  are  fitted  with 
an  additional  brake  on  the  front  wheels,  which  is 
worked  from  the  near  side  of  the  coachman's  seat. 
Obviously  the  rod  working  this  brake  must  pass 
through  the  centre  bolt  of  the  fore-carriage,  which 
bolt  is  made  hollow  for  the  purpose.  This  second 
brake  obviates,  in  many  cases,  the  employment  of 
the  skid,  but  it  should  not  be  used  unless  the  hind 
brake  is  also  on,  as  the  retardation  of  the  front 
wheels  while  the  hind  wheels  are  running  free,  may 
cause  an  accident. 

A  drag-staff  was  formerly  attached  to  travelling- 
carriages.  It  is  a  short  pole,  hinged  to  the  hind 
axle  and  trailing  on  the  ground,  so  that,  should  the 
carriage  be  stopped  in  going  up  a  hill,  the  staff 
prevents  it  from  running  back.  It  was  rarely  used 
on  coaches. 

Lamps. — The  lamps  of  a  coach  are  large,  with 
good  reflectors,  and  should  be  made  to  burn  the  or- 
dinary, large,  carriage-candles  ;  oil-lamps  are  dirty 
and  troublesome.  They  are  made  to  fit  easily  into 
the  lamp-irons,  which  are  fixed  on  the  front  edge 
of  the  body  of  the  coach,  and  should  have  stops  on 
them  to  prevent   turning  in   their   sockets.      There 


90 


LAMPS 


CH.   V 


should  be  brackets,  or  straps  of  some  kind,  in  the 
front  corners  of  the  interior  of  the  coach,  to  hold 
them  when  they  are  not  in  the  lamp-irons. 

Public-coaches  usually  have  another  pair  of  lamps 
(see  Fig.  50),  which  are  put  on  the  lower  step-irons 
of  the  front  boot.  These  additional  lamps  should 
throw  their  liofht  to  the  side  as  well  as  to  the  front. 

There  is  also  a  foot-board  lamp,  which  is  hung  on 
the  front  edge  of  the  foot-board  ;  no  part  of  it  should 
project  above  the  foot-board,  lest  it  catch  the  reins, 
and  if  it  extends  much  below,  a  horse  may  touch  it 
with  his  croup,  in  making  a  short  turn  ;  it  should 
therefore  be  small,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  have 

more  than  one  candle  in  it  ; 
its  only  use  is  to  light  the 
pole-head,  which  is  always 
in  the  shadow  cast  by  the 
horses'  shoulders.  Foot- 
board lamps  with  three  can- 
dles are  too  lars/e.  It  is  not 
easy  to  find  the  proper  place 
for  this  foot-board  lamp  ;  it  is  more  out  of  the  way 
at  the  root  of  the  foot-board,  but  the  heat  from  it  is 
likely  to  blister  the  paint  above  it,  and  it  can  be 
put  there  only  when  the  front  of  the  boot  is  fixed. 

A  completely  equipped  public-coach  which  runs 
after  dark  should  have  a  lamp  on  the  near  side 
of  the  hind  boot,  shining  backward,  to  enable  the 
guard  to  see  the  address  on  packages  and  to  read 
his  way-bill.     This  lamp  is  so  made  that  it  can  be 


Fig. 


;o. 


CH.    V  LAMPS  91 

readily  taken  off  to  be  used  to  look  along  the  road  in 
the  case  of  a  doubtful  bridge,  or  the  like.  The  main 
coach-lamps  are  often  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Lamps  are  sometimes  made  with  slides  which 
cover  the  glass  when  they  are  not  lighted,  but 
they  are  ugly,  and  when  lamps  are  not  in  use  they 
should  be  inside  the  coach. 

It  is  not  considered  the  '  proper  thing'  to  carry 
the  lamps  in  the  daytime.  This  is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  an  arbitrary  dictate  of  coaching  fashion, 
based,  however,  on  a  real  custom  of  road-coaching. 
When  coaching  was  a  business,  the  lamps  were 
kept  at  the  station  where  the  coach  changed  just 
before  dark,  and  were  put  on  the  coach  at  the 
change,  having  been  trimmed  and  filled — for  they 
were  oil-lamps — during  the  day.  When  morning 
came,  they  were  left  at  the  first  change-place,  so 
that  a  coach  was  never  seen  carrying  them  in  the 
daytime,  and  this  has  been  adopted  as  a  fashion. 
.Moreover,  the  lamps,  being  large,  are  a  good  deal 
in  the  way  of  persons,  especially  ladies,  getting  up 
and  down, — a  practical  reason  for  leaving  them  off. 
At  coaching  meets,  where  uniformity  is  desirable, 
they  must  be  either  on  all  the  coaches  or  off  all  of 
them,  and  they  are  always  off. 

It  has  become,  therefore,  one  of  the  conditions  of  a 
perfectly  turned-out  coach  that  it  should  not  have  its 
lamps  on,  though  it  is  hard  to  give  any  good  reasons, 
apart  from  those  just  mentioned,  why  the  lamps 
should  not  be  on  a  coach  as  they  are  on  a  brougham 


92 


LADDER 


CH.  V 


or  a  landau,  which  would  look  naked  without  them. 
A  break  is  always  driven  with  its  lamps  on. 

The  modern  coach-lamp  is  so  large, — almost  like 
a  locomotive  head-light, — that  it  is  very  conspicuous 
when  it  is  in  place.  Smaller  and  plainer  lamps  are 
comine  into  fashion  of  late,  more  like  the  old  mail- 
coach  lamps.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  two  plugs, 
of  mahogany,  or  other  polished,  dark  wood,  with 
smoothly  rounded  tops,  to  keep  in  the  lamp-sockets 
of  a  drag  when  the  lamps  are  not  in  use.  They 
o-ive  a  finished  look  and  are  more  agreeable  to  the 
touch  than  the  sharp  edge  of  the  socket  if  the  lamp- 
iron  is  taken  hold  of  in  getting  on  the  coach. 

A  light  ladder  is  necessary  to  enable  ladies  to 
mount   to   the   top    of   the    coach.      It    folds   in    the 

middle,  so  as  to  be  con- 
venient to  hang  up,  and 
is  usually  made  of  iron. 
Two  designs  are  shown 
in  Fig.  5  i  ;  the  one  with 
a  platform  is  the  more 
complete,  and  better  for 
a  public  -  coach.  The 
other  is  lighter  and  con- 
venient for  a  drag.  The 
steps  should  be  covered 
with  woollen  plush  or 
india-rubber,  to  prevent  the  foot  from  slipping. 
The  ladder  must  have  hooks  or  pins  which  catch 
in    the   step,    made   open    for  that    purpose,    or   on 


Fig.  51, 


CH.  V  BASKET  93 

top  of  the  wheel  when  it  is  used  for  the  hind 
roof-seats.  The  length  of  the  ladder  should  be 
carefully  considered.  If  it  is  too  long  it  will  be 
difficult  to  use  it  from  a  kerb,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  better  to  have  it  as  short  as  will  do  on  a  flat 
road.  On  a  drag  it  is  best  carried  on  two  hooks 
under  the  rumble-seat;  on  a  public-coach  it  is  hung 
under  the  hind  boot,  since  it  would  hide  the  lettering 
on  the  back  panel  were  it  under  the  seat. 

A  basket,  for  umbrellas  and  sticks 
(Fig.  52),  is  fastened  on  the  near  side,  to 
the  iron  of  the  back  roof-seat.  It  is  27 
inches  long,  10  inches  in  diameter,  and 
has  a  flat  side  which  lies  against  the 
panel.  For  a  public-coach,  it  has  usually 
a  division,  making  a  small  place  in  which 
the  horn,  with  its  bell  up,  is  carried.  The 
lower  end  of  the  basket  is  strapped  to  the  handle 
which  is  on  the  edge  of  the  body. 

While  a  basket  is  essential  to  a  public-coach,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  carry  one  on  a 
drag,  when  not  on  a  journey.  It  does  not  improve 
the  appearance  of  the  coach  as  seen  from  behind  ; 
it  widens  it  out  and  detracts  from  its  '  smart'  look  ; 
and  since  a  stop  can  be  made  at  any  time,  the  um- 
brellas can  readily  be  taken  from  the  inside  ;  in  the 
basket  they  get  chafed  and  dusty. 

When  a  basket  is  carried,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  a  horn-case  ;  but  if  the  horn  is  carried  when 
there   is   no    basket,    it  should    be   put   in    a   russet 


94 


HORN-CASE 


CH.   V 


leather  case  (Fig.  53)  strapped  to  the  off  side  roof- 
seat  iron.  It  is  on  the  off  side,  because  the  head 
groom  sits  on  that  side,  and  it  is  he  who  usually 
sounds    the    horn.     The    case     should     be    slightly 

longer  than  the  horn  and  open  at 
the  bottom,  so  that  dirt  will  not 
lodge  in  it.  A  wire  pin  across  the 
end  will  prevent  a  loose  mouth- 
piece from  dropping  through. 

On  a  public-coach,  the  rails  of  the 
roof-seats  are  connected  by  a  rod, 
which  serves  for  the  guard  to  take 
hold  of  in  climbing  round  from  his 
seat  to  the  front  of  the  coach,  and 
also  serves  to  hold  a  net,  made  of 
straps,  which  prevents  coats  and 
wraps,  laid  on  the  top  of  the  coach, 
from  falling  off  (see  Plates  XVII., 
XIX.,  and  XXII.).  Similar  rails  may  be  temporarily 
attached  to  a  drag  for  a  journey,  but  they  should 
not  be  on  when  the  drag  is  used  for  park  driving. 

Lunch-boxes  are  fitted  to  go  in  the  hind  boot. 
The  best  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  54.  These 
boxes  should  be  made  of  mahogany  or  oak,  pan- 
elled. The  large  ones  should  be  lined  with  tinned 
(planished)  copper,  which  is  much  cleaner  and  nicer 
than  zinc,  and  each  one  should  be  divided  into  three 
watertight  compartments.  In  these  compartments 
bottles,  ice,  salad,  &c.,  can  be  carried,  separated 
from  each  other. 


Fig.   53. 


CH.  V 


LUNCH-BOXES 


95 


The  shallow  case,  which  rests  on  a  slide,  over  the 
large  boxes,  should  be  7  inches  deep  outside,  and 
divided  as  shown.  Plates,  with  napkins  between 
them,  are  in  one  side,  dishes 
in  the  other,  tumblers  in  the 
places  made  for  them  in  the 
centre.  A  large  division  holds 
glass  pitchers  and  one  or  two 
table-cloths,  and  a  tray,  fitting 
on  top  of  the  tumbler  compart- 
ment, takes  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons.  A  number  of  small 
pantry  towels  should  be  added, 
in  which  the  soiled  plates  can 
be  wrapped  to  bring  them 
home  in  the  lower  boxes.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  no  soiled 
articles  should  be  put  in  the 
divided  box,  which  should  be 
lined  with  buckskin,  not  with 
the  baize  frequently  used. 

In  addition  to  the  boxes  for 
the  hind  boot,  an  '  imperial'  is 
frequently  added  to  the  roof  of 
the  coach.  It  fits  in  between  the  seats,  as  shown  in 
Plate  XVIII.,  and  the  front,  back,  and  sides  turn 
down,  so  that  it  Battens  out  into  a  table.  It  holds 
a  quantity  of  provisions,  and  generally  has  a  tray 
hanging  near  the  top  which  is  convenient  as  an 
additional    table    top.     The    imperial    is    an    ugly 


Fig.   54. 


96 


TABLES 


CH.   V 


adjunct  to  the  coach,  and  with  reasonable  ingenuity 

in   stowing  what  is   needed,  the  boxes  should   carry 

enough  for  any  ordinary  lunch. 

For  lunching  on  the  coach,  tables  fitting:  on   the 

hind  boot  and  on  the  foot-board  are  convenient.     A 

simple    arrangement    for 
this  purpose  is  shown  in 

Fig-  55- 

The  tops  of  the  tables 

are  of  a  size  to  be  carried 

under  the  cushions  of  the 

inside  seats  of  the  coach  ; 

the   iron    legs   go   in    the 

front  boot.     The  method 


Fig. 


DO- 


of  screwing  the  parts  together  is  shown  in  Fig.  55. 

For  attendance  at  race-courses,    &c,    where   the 
people  on  a  drag  sit  in  the  sun  for  a  long  time,  an 


awning  is  useful.     A  satisfactory  way  of  arranging 
it  is  shown  in  Fig   56. 

The  standards  are  of  iron  %  of  an  inch  diameter, 


CH.   V 


AWNING 


97 


jointed  in  the  middle  like  a  fishing-rod,  so  that  they 
can  be  put  in  the  boot,  or  inside  the  coach.  They 
slip  into  sockets  under  the  seats.  There  are  four 
on  each  side  ;  those  in  the  middle  rise  straight  up 
from  the  ends  of  the  roof-seats.  Those  in  the  front 
and  back  are  of  somewhat  different  shape,  so  that, 
while  rising  from  narrower  seats,  they  have  their 
upper  ends  in  a  line  with  those  in  the  middle  ;  those 
for  the  box-seat  also  turn  somewhat  forward.  The 
standards  have  collars  and  knobs,  at  the  top,  and 
four  strips  of  hard  wood,  i  y2  inch  by  x/2  inch, 
with  brass  plates  on  the  ends,  drop  over  these 
knobs,  making  a  complete  frame,  over  which  the 
awning  is  laid.  The  awning  is  best  made  of  striped 
material,  not  too  heavy,  and  should  have  a  valance  8 
inches  deep  all  round  it.  Braid  or  ribbons  should 
be  provided  by  which  the  valance  can  be  brailed  up 
if  desired  ;  these  braids  can  be  passed  through  the 
holes  which  have  to  be  made  in  the  awning  where 
it  goes  over  the  knobs. 


Fig.  57. 

A  simple  awning  is  shown  in  Fig.  57,  but  it  can 
be  used  only  when  the  long  and  rather  heavy  poles 
which  it  requires,  can  be  sent   by  another  convey- 

7 


98  TOOLS  CH.  V 

ance  than  the  coach.  The  poles  are  long-  enough  to 
reach  from  the  ground  to  about  4  feet  above  the 
roof  of  the  coach  ;  they  are  driven  slightly  into  the 
ground  and  strapped  to  the  rumble  and  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  foot-board.  For  a  week's  race-meeting' 
or  cricket-match,  this  awning  may  be  kept  on  the 
spot.  One  great  advantage  of  it  is,  that  it  can  be 
canted  to  suit  the  direction  of  the  sun. 

Tools. — The  following  articles  should  be  carried 
in  a  coach  : — 

The  wrenches  belonging  to  the  wheels. 

Monkey-wrench.     Foot-pick. 

Blacksmith's  hammer.      Horseshoe  nails. 

One  fore  shoe.     One  hind  shoe. 

Large  cutting  pliers.      Copper  wire.      Oil-can. 

Cord  and  piece  of  manila  rope  3/8  inch  diameter. 

Punch  for  making  holes  in  straps.      Strong  knife. 

Piece  of  canvas.     Extra  candles  and  matches. 

Screw-driver.      Brush.      Cloth.      Bucket. 

If  possible,  a  small  hydraulic  jack  for  raising  the 
wheel. 

The  uses  of  these  articles  will  be  referred  to  in 
the  Chapter  on  Accidents. 

A  list  of  spare  parts  of  harness  is  given  in  the 
Chapter  on  Harness. 

Aprons. — Sometimes  a  small  apron,  usually  of 
some  light  stuff,  such  as  is  used  for  linen  horse- 
covers,   or  of  thin  cloth,  is  worn  by  the  coachman, 


CH.   V  APRONS  99 

over  the  lap,  reaching  from  a  little  below  the  waist 
to  the  ankles,  and  long  enough  the  other  way  to 
tuck  under  the  legs  on  both  sides,  so  as  to  be  sat 
upon.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  dust,  and 
any  dirt  from  the  reins,  off  the  trousers.  When  it 
is  worn  for  warmth  it  must  be  of  thicker  material, 
and  fastened  around  the  waist  by  a  strap,  so  that 
when  the  wearer  stands  up  it  is  much  like  a  skirt. 
An  apron  of  this  kind  does  not,  however,  protect 
the  feet  from  cold  ;  it  is  better  to  have  one  long 
enough  to  go  under  the  feet. 

In  cold  weather  it  is  well  for  the  box  passenger 
to  have  a  small,  soft  rug,  to  be  wrapped  round  his 
legs  in  the  same  way,  under  the  box-apron,  since 
from  the  position  of  the  coachman's  legs,  an  open- 
ing letting  in  cold  air,  is  left  necessarily  at  the  side, 
under  any  apron  covering  both  persons. 

The  fashions  of  coaching  having  originated  in  a 
country  where  fur  robes  are  but  little  used,  there 
seems  to  be  a  certain  lack  of  appropriateness  in 
using  a  fur  robe  on  the  box,  although  there  is,  of 
course,  no  good  reason  against  it ;  but  a  thick  drab 
cloth  looks  rather  more  'coaching,'  and  if  neces- 
sary, it  can  be  lined  with  fur. 

For  ordinary  weather  there  is  no  better  material 
for  aprons  than  plain,  drab,  Bedford  cord,  either 
hemmed  on  the  edcre,  or  bound  with  cloth  of  the 
same  colour.  The  corners  should  be  rounded,  with 
a  radius  of  4  or  5  inches.  The  apron  for  the  box- 
seat  should  be  4  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  6  ft.  6  in.   long, 


IOO  APRONS  CH.   V 

and  should  have  a  strap  30  inches  long,  fastened 
to  the  under  side,  7  inches  below  the  upper  edge, 
which  can  be  passed  round  the  rail  of  the  box-seat 
to  keep  the  apron  from  slipping  down.  This  strap 
is  passed  through  a  ring  fastened  to  a  metal  boss, 
which  shows  on  the  outside  of  the  apron. 

Box-aprons  sometimes  have,  sewed  in  the  middle 
of  the  upper  part,  a  gusset  which  is  supposed  to 
go  down  between  the  two  persons  who  are  on  the 
box,  but  it  is  of  doubtful  utility,  since,  if  the  apron 
is  wide  enough,  its  centre  part  will  be  well  kept 
down  by  the  strap  without  displacing  the  ends. 

The  box-apron  sometimes  has  two  pockets  near 
its  upper  edge,  and  then  there  is  a  long  flap  over 
them  ;  unless  there  are  pockets,  the  flap  is  hardly 
necessary. 

The  aprons  for  the  roof-seats  should  be  4  feet 
wide  and  9  feet  long,  so  as  to  cover  all  four  pas- 
sengers, and  there  should  be  one  for  the  rumble,  4 
feet  wide  and  6  feet  long.  These  sizes  may  seem 
excessive,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  have  aprons  too 
small  ;  they  cannot  be  tucked  under  at  the  ends  and 
are  always  slipping  about. 

There  should  be  an  apron,  of  a  cloth  the  colour 
of  the  liveries,  for  the  men  to  use  in  the  rumble. 

For  cold  weather,  aprons  made  of  heavy,  drab 
cloth,  waterproofed,  and  lined  with  some  check 
material,  are  the  proper  thing.  They  should  not  be 
bound,  but  stitched  on  the  edo-e  with  several  rows 
of  stitches.     The  box-seat  apron  is  sometimes  lined 


CH.   V  APRONS  IOI 

alone  its  lower  edg^e,  inside,  with  a  band,  about  8 
inches  wide,  of  pig  skin,  so  that  the  feet  may  be 
placed  upon  it  without  wearing  it  out.  This  band 
should  be  only  as  long  as  the  foot-board,  say  40 
inches,  and  should  not  extend  to  the  ends  of  the 
apron,  or  else  it  will  be  difficult,  on  account  of  their 
stiffness,  to  tuck  them  in. 

The  most  comfortable  apron  for  cold  weather  is 
a  bag,  4  feet  .long,  up  and  down,  and  27  inches  wide 
double,  that  is,  made  of  stuff  54  inches  wide.  The 
seam  is  not  at  the  side,  but  at  the  back,  in  the 
middle,  and  extends  for  a  distance  of  about  a  foot 
from  the  bottom,  the  rest  being  open.  The  bag  is 
pulled  over  the  feet  after  sitting  down  and  the  sides 
tucked  in,  so  as  to  sit  upon  them.  The  bottom  of 
the  bag  is,  of  course,  closed. 

Against  rain,  india-rubber  aprons  should  be  pro- 
vided, and,  since  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  should 
be  thick,  the  best,  and  by  far  the  cheapest,  material 
is  ordinary  rubber-cloth,  which  can  be  bought  by 
the  yard  and  merely  cut  to  the  proper  length,  with- 
out any  binding.  It  comes  about  48  inches  wide. 
Whether  it  is  white  or  black  is  a  matter  of  taste  ; 
the  white  looks  better,  but  has  a  whitish  powder 
on  it,  which  marks  dark  clothes.  The  advantage  of 
these  thin  aprons  is  that  they  are  thin  and  can  be 
folded  and  kept  under  the  inside  cushions,  while 
the  regularly  made  rubber  aprons  are  usually  thick 
and  stiff. 


102  CH.   VI 


CHAPTER   VI 

DIFFERENT  FORMS   OF   FOUR-IN-HAND   CARRIAGES 

DRAG 

As  regards  the  different  vehicles  for  four-horse 
driving,  the  public  coach  and  the  private  drag  have 
been  already  sufficiently  described.  The  name  drag 
is  now  restricted  to  the  private  coach,  but  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century  a  public-coach  was  fre- 
quently called  a  '  drag'  and  the  coachman  a  '  drags- 
man.'  * 

Adams  writes,  in  1837:  'A  Driving  Coach  is  a 
'  vehicle  formerly  much  used  by  gentlemen  fond  of 
'  driving  and  attending  races.' 

MAIL-COACH 

When,  in  1784,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr  Palmer, 
of  Bath,  mail-coaches  were  established  in  England, 
to  replace  the  boys  on  horseback  and  the  mail- 
carts,  the  stage-coach,  so  modified  as  to  make  it 
more  suited  to  higher  speeds  and  lighter  loads, 
became  essentially  the  mail-coach  shown  in  Plate 
VII.  It  had  a  heavy  carriage-part,  but  the  body 
was    comparatively    light    and    somewhat    narrower 

*  Cross,  vol.  ii.  p.  136.      'Nimrod's'  Northern  Tour,  p.  32. 


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CH.   VI  MAIL-COACH  IO 


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than  that  of  the  stage-coach.  It  carried  four  pas- 
sengers inside,  one  on  the  box,  and  three  on  the 
front  roof-seat.  There  was  no  hind  roof-seat,  and 
the  rumble,  supported  by  irons,  carried  only  the 
guard. 

The  hind  boot  had  no  door  behind,  the  mail-bags 
being  put  in  through  an  opening  in  the  top  closed 
by  a  lid,  on  which  the  feet  of  the  guard  rested. 
In  the  place  of  the  hind  roof-seat  there  was  a  box 
containing  a  blunderbuss  and  tools.  The  earlier 
mails  had  telegraph  springs  in  front  and  a  cross 
spring  behind,  which  was  later  replaced  by  tele- 
graph springs.  The  axles  were  heavy,  with  mail 
axle-arms,  the  wheels  had  but  little  dish  and  were 
set  nearly  vertical  ;  the  hind  wheels  were  larger 
than  those  of  the  coaches,  and  measured  4  ft.  8  in. 
The  foot-board  was  small,  the  boots  were  large 
and  deep,  and  sometimes  the  full  width  of  the 
body. 

These  coaches  were  made  on  contract  by  Vidler, 
whose  firm  built  them  from  1784  to  1836.  There 
were  other  builders,  however  ;  Ward  and  Wright 
are  mentioned. 

There  is  a  model  of  a  mail-coach,  on  a  scale  of 
one  inch  to  the  foot,  in  the  General  Post-Ofhce  in 
London,  and  an  exact  copy  of  it  is  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Coaching  Club,  New  York.  It  has  a 
hammer-cloth.  On  occasions  of  ceremony  (such  as 
the  Procession  of  the  Mails,  which  took  place  from 
the  General   Post-Ofhce,  on  the   King's  birthday),  a 


104  MALLE    POSTE  CH.   VI 

hammer-cloth,  like  that  used  on  a  dress  carriage, 
was  put  on  the  box-seat.  It  was  red,  like  the  royal 
livery  of  the  guard. 

During  Vidler's  contract,  probably  few  changes 
or  improvements  were  made  in  the  mail-coaches, 
but  at  the  outset,  the  subject  seems  to  have  been 
studied  with  much  care  by  the  Post-Office  authori- 
ties, with  the  result  of  turning  out  a  very  complete 
vehicle. 

An  exact  reproduction  of  the  mail-coach  was 
built  by  Messrs  Guiet  &  Co.,  of  Paris,  in  1892,  for 
Mr  W.  G.  Tiffany,  and  was  used  in  the  drive 
against  time,  from  Paris  to  Trouville  in  July  of  that 
year.  It  has  been  copied  since  then  for  other 
private  persons,  and  is  shown  in  Plate  VII. 

MALLE    POSTE 

The  French  Mail,  or  '  Malle  poste,'  was  en- 
tirely different  from  the  English  ;  it  was  a  britzska 
with  a  dickey  for  the  guard.  It  carried  only  two 
passengers,  had  four  horses,  and  travelled  very  fast. 
(Beaufort,  p.  327.) 

General  Morix,  in  his  Report  on  the  London 
Exhibition  of  1862,  says  that  the  malle  poste  ran 
on  certain  stone-paved  roads  at  a  speed  of  from 
15  to  16  kilometres  (9.32  to  9.94  miles)  an  hour. 
The  stages  were  short,  only  five  miles.  Beaufort 
states  that  the  changes  of  horses  were  made  in 
forty-five  seconds.  Plate  VIII.,  from  an  old  drawing 
by  Victor  Adam,  shows  this  vehicle. 


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CH.   VI  DILIGENCE  105 

Morin's  description  of  the  English  coach  and 
his  comments  upon  it,  in  the  Report  just  men- 
tioned, are  too  good  to  be  lost : — 

'  At  the  same  period  the  English  mails  and 
'coaches  had  an  entirely  different  form  from  ours, 
'  and  are  reproduced  in  the  vehicle  now  used  in 
'  England  to  take  a  party  of  people  to  the  races  ; 
'  the  body  of  a  berline,  with  places  inside  for  four 
'  persons  only,  and  with  twelve  or  fourteen  seats 
'outside,  entirely  uncovered  and  surrounded  by  a 
'  simple  iron  rail  which  barely  afforded  a  point  of 
'  support  to  the  passengers  ;  a  space  on  the  roof  for 
'  the  baggage  against  which  the  passengers  leaned  : 
'  such  is  the  vehicle  to  which  the  English  gave, 
'and  still  give,  their  preference  in  a  climate  which 
'  is  wet  and  rainy  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
'  We  cannot  dispute  their  taste  in  such  things,  or 
'  in  colours.'  * 

DILIGENCE 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe,  in  old  coaching 
days,  the  vehicle  which  corresponded  to  the  stage- 
coach of  England  was  the  Diligence.  Plate  IX., 
from  a  photograph  of  a  Swiss  diligence  of  1891, 
shows  it  well,  since  few  changes  have  been  made  in 
it  during  the  past  seventy  years.  The  main  body 
is  like  that  of  a  coach,  carries  four  or  six  persons, 
and  is  called  the  'interieur.'  In  front,  and  con- 
structively forming  part  of  the  body,  is  the  'coupe,' 

*  Morin,  Rapport  sur  Classe  VI.,  p.  411. 


106  DILIGENCE  Cil.   VI 

holding  three  persons.  Behind  the  body  is  a  boot, 
on  top  of  which  is  a  seat  for  two,  or  for  three  pas- 
sengers ;  this  seat  is  furnished  with  a  hood.  The 
driver  sits  on  the  top  of  the  coupe,  with  his  feet  on 
a  foot-board,  which  is  in  front  of  the  windows  of  the 
coupe.  This  seat  is  usually  long  enough  to  take 
the  '  conducteur'  (guard)  alongside  of  the  driver, 
but  he  sometimes  sits  in  the  rumble. 

The  brake  is  applied  both  to  the  front  and  to  the 
back  of  the  hind  wheels,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it 
can  be  worked  from  both  sides  of  the  driving-seat, 
by  either  man.  There  is  no  perch,  and  therefore, 
necessarily,  three-quarter  springs.  The  front  wheels 
turn  under  the  body.  The  lead-bars  are  not  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  pole,  but  to  a  rod  which 
runs  under  the  pole  from  the  futchells.  When  three 
horses  are  in  the  lead,  as  is  quite  common,  the 
main-bar  is  long  enough  to  spread  the  outside 
horses  sufficiently  to  admit  the  centre  horse  be- 
tween them,  and  his  bar  is  hooked  to  the  centre  of 
the  main-bar,  no  attempt  being  made  to  equalise 
the  draft. 

The  baggage  is  piled  on  the  roof  and  covered 
with  a  tarpaulin  ;  the.  mail-bags  and  small  packages 
are  put  in  the  hind  boot.  Various  modifications  of 
this  vehicle  are  in  use,  but  that  just  described  may 
be  considered  the  standard  dilkrence. 

The  harness  is  simple,  and  breechings  are  invari- 
ably used  on  the  wheel  horses.  The  lead  reins  are 
passed   sometimes  over  the  wheelers'   heads,   some- 


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CH.   VI  TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE  IO7 

times  on  the  inner  side  of  the  bridle,  never  throuo-h 
terrets  on  the  pad.  The  leather  portion  of  the  trace 
is  short  and  terminates  in  a  ^  inch  rope,  which  is 
looped  round  the  score  cut  in  the  end  of  the  swingle- 
tree.  There  is  no  attempt  at  any  finish  in  harness, 
or  appointments,  or  in  methods  of  driving-,  but  these 
diligences  go  with  safety,  night  and  day,  over  good, 
though  sometimes  dangerous  roads,  at  a  fair  rate  of 
speed. 

TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE 

A  European  Travelling-carriage  of  the  early  part 
of  this  centurv,  is  shown  in  Plate  X.  It  had  a  larg-e 
body  made  in  the  form  of  a  coupe,  but  with  length 
enough  to  admit  of  a  comfortable,  additional  seat 
inside,  and  had  large  imperials  and  boxes,  which 
could  be  taken  off  and  used  as  trunks.  The  horses 
were  always  ridden  by  postilions,  therefore  there 
was  no  driving-seat,  but  there  was  a  rumble,  usu- 
ally provided  with  a  hood. 

BREAK 

A  Break,  according  to  English  usage,  is  strictly 
the  four-wheeled  vehicle  shown  in  Fig.  58,  used  for 
breaking  horses  ;  but,  either  from  the  obvious  utility 
of  putting  a  body  behind  the  driving-seat,  or  else  as 
a  development  of  the  well-known  wagonette,  it  has 
assumed  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  59. 

This  in  turn  has  been  simplified  by  omitting  the 
perch  and  mounting  the  body  on  four  elliptic 
springs. 


io8 


BREAK 


CH.   VI 


By  this  simplification,  while  the  form  of  the  vehicle 
is  but  little  changed,  the  mechanical  principle  is 
much  modified. 

In  a  carriage  made  with  a  perch,  the  horses  are 
attached  directly  to  the  whole  of  the  carriage- part, 
which  follows  them  as  one  piece,  while  the  body 
alone  is  above  the  springs  ;  in  a  carriage  without  a 
perch,  the  horses  pull  upon  the  body,  and  second- 


Fig.   58. 

arily  upon  the  axles  and  wheels  through  the 
springs,  the  body,  in  a  measure,  taking  the  place 
of  a  perch. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  when  any  wheel  of  a  perched 
carriage  strikes  an  obstacle,  the  shock  is  felt  directly 
by  the  horses  ;  while  in  one  without  a  perch,  the 
shocks,  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  are  taken  largely 
by  the  springs,  and  reach  the  horses  with  their 
violence  much  diminished. 


CH.  VI 


BREAK 


IO9 


For  this  reason  carriages  without  a  perch  are 
undoubtedly  easier  on  the  horses,  and  nearly  all 
vehicles,  nowadays,  are  so  made. 

They  are  also  much  lighter,  and  as  the  front 
wheels  can  be  made  to  go  far,  or,  in  fact,  all  the 
way,  under  the  body,  such  vehicles  turn  in  a  small 
space.  It  is,  however,  supposed  that,  from  the 
greater  flexibility  of  the  vehicle,  the  hind  wheels  do 


Fig.  59. 

not  follow  the  front  wheels  with  accuracy,  and  that 
thereby  the  draught  may  be  increased. 

It  must  be  also  noted  that  the  pole  of  a  carriage 
without  a  perch  is  liable  to  fly  up  in  crossing  a  de- 
pression, such  as  a  gutter,  and  strike  a  horse  in  the 
mouth. 

Experience,  up  to  this  time,  and,  perhaps,  a  cer- 


I  IO  BREAK  CH.   VI 

tain  amount  of  prejudice,  have  led  to  the  retaining 
of  the  perch  construction  in  heavy  vehicles,  like 
coaches. 

A  light  buggy  has  only  two  elliptic  springs,  and 
therefore,  of  necessity,  a  perch,  because  the  springs, 
set  crosswise,  would  not  be  in  the  proper  position  to 
resist  the  strain  of  the  draught  ;  carriages  interme- 
diate  in  weight  between  coaches  and  bug-cnes  usu_ 
ally  have  no  perch,  and  have  four  elliptic  springs,  or 
some  modification  of  them.* 

Mail-phaetons  are  almost  the  only  carriages-  to 
which  the  two  systems  are  applied,  some  having 
perches  and  regular  telegraph  springs,  and  others 
(demi-mail  phaetons)  four  elliptic  springs  only.  In 
this  particular  style  of  carriage,  the  body  is  not 
heavy  enough  to  make  the  telegraph  springs  work 
easily,  and  a  phaeton  with  a  perch,  although  stylish, 
is  apt  to  be  stiff  and  uncomfortab  e. 

Since  a  break  is  principally  to  '  knock  about'  with 
and  to  use  in  rough  places,  it  is  better  to  have  it 
without  a  perch  ;  its  greater  lightness  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  turned  in  narrow  places  much 
more  than  counterbalances  any  advantages  that  the 
perch  construction  may  possess. 

The  wagonette  break  is  the  kind  most  frequently 
used,  but  while  it  is  convenient  to  carry  baggage  or 
the  like,  it  is  not  as  good  a  four-in-hand  vehicle  as 


*  Beaufort,  p.  238,  speaks  of  Clark's  coach,   on  the  Brighton 
Road,  in  1862,  as  having  no  perch  and  being  good  to  carry  a  load. 


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CH.   VI  BREAK  I  I  I 

some  form  of  the  French  char  a  bancs  (so  called  from 
its  being  a  car  with  benches  placed  across  it),  shown 
in  Plate  XI.  The  driving-seat  is  exactly  like  that 
of  a  coach,  and  can  be  made  the  same  height  from 
the  ground  ;  the  splinter-bar,  and  consequently  the 
horses,  will  be  then  in  the  same  relative  place  as  in 
a  coach.  The  second  seat,  which  can  be  made  for 
three,  or  for  four  persons,  is  a  little  higher  than  the 
box-seat,  and  the  leg-room  is  much  better  than  on  a 
coach  ;  the  rumble,  as  usual,  seats  the  grooms.  The 
body  has  doors  in  the  sides  and  a  door  behind,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  boots  ;  with  open  gratings 
in  the  sides,  or  in  the  doors,  dogs  can  be  carried 
comfortably.  For  country  and  sporting  purposes 
nothing  can  be  better.  A  char  a  bancs  like  that 
shown  in  the  plate  will  weigh  about  1600  pounds; 
twice  as  much  as  a  light  mail-phaeton  without  a 
perch.  The  connection  of  the  hind  springs  with 
the  axles  and  with  the  body  should  be  carefully 
considered  in  designing  this  vehicle,  since  the  brake 
tends  to  push  the  hind  axle  backward  in  a  manner 
in  which  it  will  not  be  pushed  in  a  carriage  without 
a  brake.  There  is  a  way  of  connecting  the  front 
end  of  the  spring  to  the  body  which  will  counteract 
this  strain,  but  somewhat  to  the  detriment  of  the 
easy  action  of  the  springs  (see  Fig.  28). 

The  pole,  pole-hook,  lead-bars,  &c,  of  a  break 
should  be  exactly  like  those  of  a  coach,  but  some- 
what lighter,  not,  however,  in  proportion  to  the 
difference  of  weight  of  the  vehicles. 


I  12 


HIGH    PHAETON 


CH.  VI 


Barouche  Landau. — In  the  early  part  of  this  cen- 
tury, the  favourite  carriage  for  the  four-in-hand 
amateur  seems  to  have  been  a  '  Barouche  Landau,'  * 
which  was  a  barouche  with  a  high  driving-seat,  and 
a  rumble  for  two  servants.  A  carriage  of  this  kind 
was  used  by  the  Prince  Regent  at  Brighton. 

A  very  high  phaeton  (Fig.  60)  was  also  used  at 
the  same  period  ;  it  was  sometimes  called  a  '  high 
flyer.' 


Fig.   60. 


The  Jaunting  Car  (Fig.  61),  introduced  into  Ire- 
land in  1 81 5  by  Bianconi,  is  another  four-horse 
vehicle  ;  although  it  is  generally  used  with  two 
horses  only. 


*  Sporting  Magazine,  1826.      Mentioned  by  Malet,  p.   127;  also 
by  Lennox,  p.  201. 


CH.   VI 


CURRICLE    OR    CAPE    CART 


113 


Private  Omnibus. — A  vehicle  much  used  in  the 
country  for  station  purposes,  and  the  like,  is  the 
Private  Omnibus  (Fig.  62).  It  is  admirably  adapted 
for  four-in-hand  driving-,  since  the  driving-seat  is 
high  and  a  seat  for  three  or  for  four  people  can  be 
readily  arranged  on  the  roof.  The  interior  is  en- 
tered from  the  back,  and,  therefore,  the  hind  wheels 
can  be  large,  and  the  axle  well  under  the  body, 
hence  the  vehicle  runs  easily. 


Fig.   61. 

Small  seats  are  added  at  the  rear,  on  each  side 
of  the  door,  for  the  grooms. 

The  omnibus  may  be  also  used  with  three  horses 

abreast. 

• 

Curricle  or  Cape  Cart. — Any  two-wheeled  cart 
made  with  a  pole  instead  of  shafts,  to  be  drawn  by 
two  horses,  can  of  course  be  used  with  four. 


ii4 


CAPE    CART 


CH.  VI 


Such  a  cart  is  the  Curricle,  the  pole  of  which  is 
suspended  from  the  centre  of  a  bar  which  rests 
upon  the  pads  of  the  harness.  A  simpler  arrange- 
ment, much  used  in  the  English  Settlements  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  therefore  called  a  Cape 
Cart,  has  the  pole  supported  by  a  yoke  attached  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  collars  just  as  the  pole  of  a 


Fig.  62. 


trotting  wagon  is  supported,  except  that  the  pole- 
straps  are  much  longer.  With  a  hook  on  the  point 
of  the  pole,  or  a  rope  running  back  to  the  axle 
(as  described  on  page  58),  four  horses  can  be 
driven  to  such  a  cart,  and  it  is  admirably  adapted 
to  wild  regions  where  the  roads  are  little  more  than 
tracks. 


CH.   VI  SLEIGH  I  1 5 

A  curricle-bar  may  be  made  to  go  under  the 
horses'  bellies  instead  of  over  their  backs,  and 
such  a  'rig'  is  described  by  '  Nimrod,'  Northern 
Tour,  p.  68,  as  being  part  of  the  'curricle  mail.'  It 
has  been  revived  in  America  as  part  of  a  plough 
harness,  and  has  been  used  for  the  leaders  of  a 
coach,  with  a  single  trace,  or  rope,  going  from  the 
middle  of  it  to  the  point  of  the  pole. 

In  Philipson  On  Harness,  pp.  49-63,  will  be  found 
an  excellent  article  on  the  Cape  Cart,  with  full  de- 
tails of  its  construction  and  mode  of  harnessing. 

Sleigh. — A  sleigh  is  not  well  adapted  to  four-in- 
hand  driving,  since  it  is  usually  too  low,  and  if  the 
height  of  the  driving-seat  is  increased  the  sleigh  is 
likely  to  tip  over. 

Probably  the  best  arrangement  for  driving  four- 
in-hand  on  snow  or  ice,  would  be  to  fit  four  '  bob- 
runners'  to  the  axles  of  a  break.  A  bob-runner  is 
a  quarter  of  a  wheel,  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
rim  lengthened  horizontally,  and  having  a  hub  and 
box  fitting  on  the  axle-arm. 


I  16  CH.  VII 


CHAPTER    VII 

AMERICAN    COACH 

As  has  been  said  in  a  previous  Chapter,  the 
American  coach  seems  to  be  nearly  the  English 
coach  of  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
arrested  in  its  development,  because  the  conditions 
under  which,  in  this  country,  it  has  been,  and  is  still, 
used,  are  nearly  similar  to  those  of  that  period  in 
England. 

The  lonyr  distances  in  America,  and  the  newness 
and  comparative  poverty  of  the  country,  prevented 
the  construction,  at  an  early  period,  of  roads  as 
good  as  those  of  Europe,  and  later,  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  railroads  checked  the  building  of 
main  driving  roads,  so  that  coaches  had  to  be 
adapted  to  rough  roads  and  bad  usage. 

The  typical  American  coach,  usually  called  the 
'  Concord  coach,'  from  Concord,  New  Hampshire, 
where  the  majority  of  them  are  built,  is  shown 
in  Plate  XII.,  which  is  an  accurate  drawing  to  a 
half-inch  scale,  kindly  furnished  by  '  The  Abbot- 
Downing  Company  of  Concord.' 

The  photogravure,  Plate  XV.,  of  a  heavy  coach 
made  for  our  Western  States  and  Territories  and 
still  sent  to  Africa  ;  and  Plate  XVI.,  of  a  light  coach 
such  as  is  still  used  in  some   places  in   the  White 


PLATE    XIII. 


Scale  of   Feet. 
REAR    VIEW    OF    CONCORD    CO^CH 


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CH.  VII  CONCORD    COACH  I  I  7 

Mountains  not  as  yet  reached  by  the  railroad,  show 
the  two  extremes  of  design. 

The  peculiarities  in  construction  of  this  coach 
are,  that  it  has  three  parallel,  straight  perches  con- 
necting the  hind  axle  and  the  front  transom-bed 
and  forming  a  very  stiff  rectangular  frame.  See 
Plate  XIV.  The  three  perches  extend  9  or  10 
inches  back  of  the  hind  axle  and  are  connected 
by  a  cross  piece.  At  the  four  corners  of  this  frame 
rise  four  stiff,  iron  standards,  firmly  braced  so  that 
they  cannot  bend,  which  carry,  at  their  upper  ends, 
square  iron  shackles  ;  connecting  these  shackles 
on  each  side  are  thick  leather  straps,  and  upon 
these  straps,  or  thorough-braces,  rests  the  body  of 
the  coach. 

This  is  exactly  the  mode  of  suspension  of  Eu- 
ropean carriages  before  the  introduction  of  springs, 
which,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  wholly  absent  in  the 
Concord  coach. 

The  fore-carriage  differs  from  that  of  the  Enelish 
coach  principally  in  not  having  any  outer  futchells. 
The  inner  futchells  are  spread  out  behind  to  take 
the  sway-bar,  and  brought  together  in  front  to  take 
the  pole  ;  corresponding  to  the  splinter-bar  is  an 
evener,  attached  to  the  top  of  the  futchells  by  a  bolt, 
about  which  it  turns,  its  motion  being  limited  by 
chains  which  00  from  its  ends  to  the  axle.  To  this 
evener  are  hooked  the  swingle-trees. 

The  pole  measures  9  ft.  7  in.  from  the  front  of  the 
evener,  but  inasmuch  as  the  swingle-trees  are  4^ 


I  I  8  CONCORD    COACH  CH.  VII 

inches  in  front  of  the  evener,  the  pole  is  only  iy2 
inches  longer  than  the  English  pole,  measured  be- 
tween the  same  points. 

The  brake  is  attached  to  the  under-carriage  and 
not  to  the  body,  of  which  it  is  entirely  independent, 
and  the  brake-blocks  are  shoved  against  the  wheels, 
being  on  the  ends  of  a  bar  which  slides  under  the 
perches  ;  it  is  worked  by  a  lever,  shown  distinctly  in 
Plate  XVI.,  rising-  alongside  of  the  off  side  of  the 
coachman's  seat.  This  lever  has,  near  its  upper 
end,  an  iron  cross-bar  on  which  the  coachman's  foot 
can  be  placed  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  lever 
forward  ;  there  being  no  rack  to  hold  the  lever  when 
it  is  pressed  forward,  the  brake  can  be  kept,  against 
the  wheel  only  by  constant  pressure  of  the  foot. 

The  form  of  the  body  is  shown  in  the  drawings. 
It  has  a  great  deal  of  'cant'  and  'turn-under,'  and 
its  extreme  width  is  4  ft.  6  in.  It  is  made  to  carry 
nine  persons,  three  on  each  of  the  three  seats.* 
The  middle  seat  is  a  bench  in  three  parts,  the 
centre  part  fixed  to  the  floor,  the  ends  turning  up 
on  hinges,  to  facilitate  access  from  either  door  to 
the  seats.  The  passengers  sitting  on  the  middle 
seat  lean  against  a  broad  leather  strap,  which  is 
hung  from  the  roof  by  two  straps,  and  has,  at  each 
end,  strong  hooks  going  into  sockets  on  the  pillars 
of  the  door  (Fig.  63). 

*  Many  English  coaches  in  the  early  part  of  the  century  carried 
six  persons  inside,  three  on  each  seat. 


CH.  VII 


CONCORD    COACH 


119 


That  which  corresponds  to  the  front  boot  of  an 
English  coach  is  a  lare;e  foot-board  with  leather 
sides,  and  the  hind  boot  is  a  baggage-rack  with 
leather  sides  and  cover. 


cr 


S 


E=S 


Fig.   63. 

In  the  light  coach,  the  front  boot  is  small  and 
of  wood  ;  in  both  light  and  heavy  coaches,  the  front 
seat  and  the  boot  are  held  to  the  roof  by  diagonal 
iron  rods. 

The  passengers  occupying  the  roof-seat  rest  their 
feet  upon  the  back  part  of  the  cushion  of  the  box- 
seat. 

The  upper  panels  of  the  sides  are  not  solid,  but 
closed  by  curtains ;  a  narrow  panel  with  a  small 
glass  in  it,  on  each  side  of  the  door,  admits  light 
when  the  curtains  are  down.  The  door  has  the 
usual  sash,  with  glass  in  one  or  more  panes. 

When  the  coach  is  running,  the  body  sways  about 
freely  upon  the  thorough-braces,  the  motion  being 
principally  fore  and  att,  sometimes  quite  enough  to 
make  a  sensitive  person  sea-sick.  An  excessive 
movement  is  checked  by  straps  from  the  sides  of 
the  body  to  the  perches.  This  rocking  to  and  fro 
adds  to  the  difficulty  of   driving,   because  the  arm 


120  CONCORD    COACH  CH.   VII 

has  to  go  backward  and  forward  to  counteract  ihe 
movement  of  the  body,  interfering  seriously  with 
fine  work.  When  the  foot  is  on  the  brake,  the 
leg  is  kept  constantly  in  motion  from  the  same 
cause. 

The  hind  wheels  are  high,  being  5  ft.  1  in.,  while 
those  of  the  old  mails  were  4  ft.  8  in.,  and  of  a 
modern  coach  4  ft.  4  in. 

The  front  wheels  are  3  ft.  10  in.,  the  same  in 
height  as  those  of  the  mails,  those  of  a  coach  being 
3  ft.  4  in. 

The  body  is  high,  being  mounted  upon  the  thor- 
ough-braces, and  it  is  somewhat  singular  that  the 
height  of  the  roof  from  the  ground  is  almost  ex- 
actly that  of  the  old  English  coaches. 

An  Act  of  Parliament  passed  in  1806  provided 
that  no  passengers  should  be  carried  on  top  of  a 
coach  the  top  of  which  was  more  than  8  ft.  9  in. 
from  the  ground,  an(j  xha.t  2  feet  of  luggage  could 
be  carried  on  top,  if  the  whole  load  were  not  higher 
than  10  ft.  9  in.  from  the  ground,  thus  giving  again 
8  ft.  9  in.  as  the  height,  or  at  least  the  maximum 
height,  of  the  roof.  The  height  of  the  roof  of  a 
Concord  coach  is  8  ft.  6  in.,  that  of  a  modern  Eng- 
lish  coach  6  ft.  10  in. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  body  is  as  far  back 
as  the  opening  of  the  door  past  the  wheels  will 
permit,  and  as  the  heaviest  baggage  is  put  on  the 
hind  rack,  the  load  is  thrown  well  back  on  the  large 


w 


heels. 


CH.  VII  CONCORD    COACH  I  2  I 

A  comparison  of  the  Concord  coach  with  an 
English  coach  can  be  best  made  by  placing  the 
transparent  print  of  either  on  top  of  the  other. 

There  are  obvious  reasons  why  the  Concord  coach 
is  not  well  adapted  to  amateur  pleasure  coaching. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  too  large,  and  while  it  could 
be  much  reduced  in  size,  it  would  of  necessity  be 
high  on  account  of  its  suspension,  unless  the  wheels 
should  be  reduced  below  a  proper  size.  It  is  cer- 
tainly neither  a  compact  nor  a  '  smart'  looking  ve- 
hicle :  it  lacks  the  boots,  which  are  convenient  for 
many  purposes  ;  the  arrangement  of  its  front  roof- 
seat  is  not  good  ;  there  is  no  place  at  the  back  for 
the  servants  ;  a  brake,  with  a  rack,  cannot  be  readily 
adapted  to  it ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  rocking  of 
the  body  interferes  seriously  with  fine  driving,  since 
the  coachman's  hand  is  always  in  motion  back  and 
forth,  to  the  discomfort  of  his  horses'  mouths,  unless 
he  is  continually  giving  his  hand,  which  is  an  un- 
graceful movement. 

The  changes  from  the  old  type  of  English  coach 
to  the  present  type  are  precisely  those  which  were 
suggested  by  better  roads  and  by  the  demand  for 
increased  comfort ;  the  improved  form  of  coach  is 
therefore  that  best  adapted  to  pleasure  coaching. 

For  rough  business  purposes  on  bad  roads,  the 
Concord  coaches  are  well  adapted,  and  there  can 
be  no  better  proof  thereof  than  the  fact  that  they 
are  largely  used  in  Africa  and  Australia  (notwith- 
standing  English  influence    naturally  predominates 


122  CONCORD    COACH  CH.   VII 

in  those  countries),  to  say  nothing  of  Mexico  and 
South  America. 

These  coaches  are  made  almost  wholly  of  wood  ; 
there  is  little  about  them  that  ordinary  country 
mechanics  cannot  repair  ;  they  have  no  expensive 
steel  springs,  but  leather  thorough-braces  which 
can  be  replaced  by  the  roughest  workman  ;  they 
are  loose  and  flexible  in  their  movements  ;  bear 
an  immense  amount  of  hard  usao;e  without  being: 
disabled,  and  run  safely  over  roads  which  would 
dislocate  an  English  coach  in  the  first  half-mile. 
Other  points  in  connection  with  these  coaches  will 
be  noted  in  the  remarks  on  the  American  system  of 
driving  in  Chapter  XIV. 


CH.  VIII 


CHAPTER   VIII 
COMPARISON    OF    COACHES 

Plates  II.,  VII.,  XL,  XII.,  XVII.,  XVIII.,  XIX., 
XX.,  and  XXII.  give  drawings  of  coaches  of  vari- 
ous types,  all  drawn  to  the  same  scale,  one-half 
inch  to  the  foot,  and  printed  dry,*  so  that  the 
dimensions  are  accurately  shown.  The  duplicate 
plates,  on  transparent  paper,  can  be  torn  out  and 
superposed  on  the  different  plates  for  the  purpose 
of  comparison. 

The  coaches  in  Plates  VII.,  XVII.,  XVIII.,  XIX., 
XX.,  and  XXII.,  being  of  the  same  period  (1873 
to  1896),  differ  mainly  in  details.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  XX.  is  lonoer  than  the  others  between  the 
axles, — a  good  point ;  XXII.  is  much  lower  than  the 
others.  The  relative  sizes  of  the  boots,  places  of 
driving-seats,  and  foot-board  angles,  are  of  interest. 

Since  the  bodies  in  all  the  coaches  are  nearly  of 
the  same  size,  the  differences  of  form  and  detail 
may  be  most  clearly  observed  by  so  placing  the 
transparent  sheet  that  the  ground  lines  and  the 
front  or  the  back  lines  of  the  bodies  coincide  in  the 

*  That  is,  printed  on  paper  which  has  not  been  wetted  for  print- 
ing.    The  scale  of  the  drawing  has  not  been  affected,  therefore,  by 

shrinkage. 


124  COMPARISON    OF    COACHES  CH.  VIII 

drawings.  The  outlines  of  the  bottoms  of  the 
bodies  will  be  seen  to  vary,  some  being-  rounder 
than  others.  The  heights  of  the  foot-boards  from 
the  ground  also  vary,  that  of  XX.  being  somewhat 
too  low  ;  otherwise  the  proportions  of  the  driving- 
seat  and  foot-board  of  XX.  are  exceptionally  good. 
In  XVIII.  and  XIX.  the  foot-board  and  driving-seat 
are  somewhat  too  high,  the  persons  on  the  box-seat 
cutting  off  the  view  from  those  on  the  roof-seat.  It 
is  desirable  to  have  the  box-seat  at  least  three  inches 
lower  than  the  roof-seat ;  in  XX.  it  is  five.  The 
foot-board  angles  in  VII.,  XVII.,  XVIII.,  XIX..  XX., 
and  XXII.  are  practically  identical,  ranging  from  30 
to  33XA  degrees,  and  are  very  good  ;  a  greater  angle 
tires  the  ankles  of  the  coachman,  and  a  lesser  one 
places  his  feet  too  flat.  The  foot-board  of  XL,  with 
an  angle  of  40  degrees,  is  somewhat  too  steep. 

The  coach  shown  in  Plate  XXII.  differs  from  the 
other  coaches  in  having  its  top  much  lower.  This 
is  brought  about  by  making  the  body  itself  slightly 
smaller,  and  by  hanging  it  closer  to  the  perch,  a 
somewhat  smaller  hind  wheel  being  adopted,  thus 
lowering  the  axle.  Lowering  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  of  course  an  advantage  ;  here  it  is  obtained  at 
the  cost  of  smaller  hind  wheels,  of  a  low  foot-board, 
and  of  a  low  roof-seat. 

The  foot-boards  of  XX.  and  XXII.  are  somewhat 
too  low  ;  a  laro-e  horse  might  touch  them  with  his 
rump,  unless  the  traces  are  longer  than  is  desirable. 

A  high   foot-board  and  a  steep  front  to  the  boot 


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CO 

I 
O 
< 

o 
o 


00 

0. 


X 


«        o 

CO 


CD 


H 


u. 


oo 


C 

n 


z 
< 

I 


o         <° 

<n 

I 
o 
< 
o 
o 


CO 


CH.  VIII  COMPARISON    OF    COACHES  1 25 

permit  the  wheel  horses  to  be  put  close  to  the 
splinter-bar  ;  but  instead  of  making  the  foot-board 
too  hiofh.  it  is  better  to  bring  the  whole  fore-car- 
riage  forward,  and  thus  get  a  short  trace,  with  the 
additional  advantage  of  a  longer  coupled  coach 
(see  p.  167).  The  majority  of  coach-makers  have  a 
fancy  for  a  short  coupling,  and  sacrifice  important 
features  for  what  is  really  a  disadvantage. 

On  comparing  XIX.  and  XX.,  putting  the  ground 
lines  together  and  the  roller-bolts  together,  two  ex- 
treme forms  will  be  noticed.  In  XX.  a  sixteen-hand 
horse,  with  a  trace  of  the  proper  length,  is  too  close 
to  the  foot-board  ;  in  XIX.  there  is  more  space 
than  is  necessary ;  XXII.  is  nearly  the  same  as 
XX.  ;  XVII.  is  a  good  mean  between  the  two. 

The  comparison  of  the  Oxford  coach  (Cordery), 
Plate  II.,  with  the  others  is  very  interesting.  The 
body  is  about  the  same  size  as  that  of  the  Barker 
drag,  Plate  XX.,  but  is  hung  13  inches  higher,  a 
position  partly  made  necessary  by  the  length  of 
the  whip-spring,  but  also,  no  doubt,  by  following 
the  fashion  of  the  private  carriages  of  the  day, 
inasmuch  as  there  is  no  mechanical  reason  why  the 
whip-springs  should  not  have  been  set  lower  or  the 
braces  made  longer.  Notwithstanding  the  height 
of  the  body,  the  driving-seat  is  somewhat  low.  The 
roof  of  II.  is  exactly  the  same  height  as  that  of 
XII.  (American  Concord),  but  as  XII.  is  constructed 
to  carry  nine  inside  passengers,  the  bodies  differ 
extremely. 


126  CARE    OF    THE    COACH  CH.   VIII 

The  distance  between  the  axles  of  XII.  is  made 
necessary  by  the  length  of  the  body  and  of  the 
thorough-braces. 

The  hind  wheels  of  II.  and  of  XII.  are  of  the 
same  size,  and  much  larger  than  in  any  of  the  other 
plates. 

Plate  XI.  shows  a  break  designed  by  me  many 
years  ago  for  my  own  use,  and  a  comparison  of  it 
with  the  coaches,  shows  that  it  preserves  their  main 
proportions,  while  being  much  lighter ;  weighing 
only  1600  pounds.  As  in  almost  all  breaks,  the 
horses  are  from  six  to  ten  inches  further  away  from 
the  coachman  than  they  are  in  a  coach.  This  dis- 
tance can  be  diminished  by  putting  the  front  wheel 
further  under  the  body,  but  somewhat  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  steady  running  of  the  vehicle  and  of  its 
appearance. 

CARE  OF  THE  COACH 

As  soon  as  the  coach  returns  to  the  stable  after 
use,  it  should  be  washed,  and  under  no  circum- 
stances should  mud  be  allowed  to  dry  on  it,  since 
that  will  inevitably  spot  the  varnish.  There  is  no 
way  of  washing  so  good  as  with  a  stream  from  a 
hose,  where  water  under  pressure  is  available  ;  fail- 
ing this,  water  must  be  dashed  on  the  carriage 
from  a  bucket.  As  the  under  part  of  a  coach  is 
much  more  complex  than  that  of  an  elliptic-spring 
carriage,  it  is  more  difficult  to  wash,  and  the  man 
must  get  under  the  coach  to  do  it  thoroughly. 
Where    plenty  of   water   can   be   had   there   is  little 


CH.   VIII  CARE    OF    THE    COACH  \2J 

necessity  for  using-  a  sponge,  and  the  water  should 
be  dried  off  with  a  damp  chamois  leather.  Sponges 
should  be  carefully  selected  and  examined ;  they 
almost  always  contain  gritty  lumps,  which  are  sure 
to  scratch  the  varnish. 

There  is  no  great  art  in  washing  a  carriage,  ex- 
cept to  exercise  care  and  not  to  be  in  a  hurry. 
India-rubber  boots  should  be  provided  for  the 
washer  ;  in  French  stables  he  wears  sabots. 

Water  must  not  be  allowed  to  go  through  the 
joints  of  the  doors  so  as  to  wet  the  linings  and 
carpet. 

The  blueness  of  the  varnish  on  the  dark  parts 
of  a  coach,  resulting  from  a  long  wetting  by  rain, 
will  disappear  after  complete  drying. 

Little  need  be  done  to  the  steel-work  at  first, 
except  to  dry  it  thoroughly.  At  the  first  convenient 
time,  generally  the  morning  after  the  coach  has 
been  used,  it  must  be  polished.  If  it  is  much 
rusted  by  exposure  to  the  damp  very  fine  emery 
cloth  may  be  used  to  brighten  it,  and  it  should  be 
afterward  burnished  by  rubbing  with  the  chain 
rubber  (see  Fig.  121)  until  a  high  polish  is  ob- 
tained. 

A  piece  of  hard,  steel  chain,  made  exactly  like  a 
curb-chain,  but  about  two  feet  long,  is  the  best  thing 
for  burnishing  a  pole-head  ;  it  can  be  pulled  back 
and  forth  over  it  with  a  great  pressure. 

A  long  piece  of  chamois  leather  dusted  with  flour 
of  emery  may  be   used  to  advantage  on   the   pole- 


128  COST    OF    A    COACH  CH.   VIII 

head,  but  coarse  grit  will  scratch  the  surface  and 
make  it  impossible  to  get  a  proper  polish.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  rub  off  the  paint  where  it  joins 
the  steel.  Nothing-  shows  g-ood  stable-care  more 
emphatically  than  really  well-kept  steel,  and  only 
hard  work  will  bring  about  the  desired  result. 

In  taking-  off  the  wheels  for  oiling-,  a  small  table 
or  chair,  or  at  least  a  paper  spread  upon  the  floor, 
should  be  used  to  receive  the  nuts,  washers,  and 
pins  ;  if  laid  upon  the  floor  they  are  sure  to  get  grit 
upon  them,  which  will  damage  the  finely  finished 
axle.  The  old  oil  must  be  carefully  removed  and 
all  the  parts  scrupulously  cleaned  before  re-oiling 
and  putting  together.  On  a  private  coach,  Collinge 
axles  run  from  one  to  two  months  without  attention, 
but  mail  axles  require  oiling  once  a  week,  and  on 
public-coaches  it  is  usual  to  clean  and  oil  the  axles 
every  day,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  a  thorough 
examination  of  all  nuts  and  bolts.  When  washing 
a  coach,  public  or  private,  the  washer  should  always 
bear  in  mind  the  necessity  of  examining  every  part 
of  it,  to  see  whether  all  is  in  g;ood  order. 

COST    OF    A    COACH 

The  cost  of  a  coach  depends  upon  its  finish  and 
the  locality  where  it  is  built.  For  what  may  be 
called  a  standard  drag,  built  in  the  very  best  way, 
the  price  is  usually  in  America  2400  dollars,  in 
England  300  guineas,  and  in  France  8000  francs. 


CH. IX  I29 


CHAPTER   IX 

WEIGHT   OF   A    COACH 

The  weight  of  a  drag  varies  from  2100  to  2400 
pounds,  and  of  a  public-coach  from  2200  to  2600 
pounds.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  go  beyond  these 
limits  in  either  direction.  A  drag  lighter  than  2100 
will  not  stand  the  hard  usage  that  an  enterprising 
coachman  will  give  it,  and  will  go  to  pieces  before  its 
time,  besides  giving  constant  trouble,  and  nothing 
is  gained  in  strength  or  stability  by  exceeding  2400. 
A  public-coach  is  loaded  more  heavily  than  a  drag, 
and  driven  faster  ;  consequently  it  should  be  both 
stronger  and  heavier,  but  need  not  exceed  2400 
pounds. 

'Nimrod,'  in  The  Road  (1832),  and  Macneill 
(1830),*  give  the  weight  of  the  stage-coach  of  that 
day  as  18  cwt.  (2016  pounds),  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  stage-coaches  were  then  generally  lighter  than 
they  were  made  afterward.  '  Nimrod'  {Northern 
Tour,  1834,  p.  13)  speaks  of  coaches  as  being 
always  under  one  ton  (2240  pounds). 

The  more  of  the  whole  weight  there  is  in  the 
carriage-part  and  the  less  in  the  body  the  better, 
since    the    great    object    is    to    keep    the    centre  of 

*  Parnell,  Roads,  p.  333. 
9 


13° 


WEIGHT    OF    A    COACH 


CH.   IX 


gravity  low,  and  the  carriage-part  has  to  bear  the 
major  part  of  the  strains. 

The    following  Table    shows    the    distribution    in 
several  examples  : — 


Public-Coach 
Mail .     .     . 
Drag 
Public-Coach 


Carriage. 

Body. 

Total. 

1367 

1499 

2866 

477 

523 

IOOO 

1323 

1389 

2712 

488 

512 

IOOO 

992 

1257 

2249 

441 

559 

IOOO 

1582 

890 

2472 

640 

360 

IOOO 

The  larger  figures  give  the  weight  in  pounds,  the 
smaller  ones  the  parts  in  1000.  The  Table  shows 
somewhat  wide  differences  of  design,  the  last  ex- 
ample being  one  in  which  pains  were  taken  to  get 
a  very  light  body  for  a  heavy  carriage-part. 

Figures  of  this  kind  are  only  approximately  cor- 
rect, unless  all  the  coaches  compared  are  weighed 
by  the  same  person,  since  the  weights  given  by  dif- 
ferent makers  may  not  always  include  the  same 
parts.  For  the  purpose  of  this  comparison  the 
coaches  should  be  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
are  to  g-o  on  the  road,  with  cushions,  seat-backs, 
&c.,  the  separation  between  the  body  and  the  car- 
riage-part being  made  at  the  blocks  which  are  on  top 
of  the  springs.  Neither  the  pole  nor  the  chain  and 
shoe  should  be  included. 

The  distribution  of  the  weight  between  the  front 
and  hind  wheels  is  important ;   usually  there  is  more 


CH.  IX  DISTRIBUTION    OF    WEIGHT  I  3  I 

than  half  on  the  front  wheels,  and  this  seems  un- 
avoidable, but  as  the  hind  wheels  are  the  larger 
they  should  have  more  to  carry. 

In  omnibuses  this  is  usually  well  arranged,  since, 
there  being  no  door  in  the  side  of  the  body,  the  axle 
can  be  placed  well  forward.  They  consequently 
run  light. 

In  coaches  the  distribution  of  weight  between  the 


£> 


front  and  hind  axles  is  as  follows  : — 

Front.  Hind.  Total. 

Public-Coach    ....      1532  1334  2866 

535  465  1000 

Mail 1455  1257  2712 

537  463  1000 

Drag 1 2 19  1030  2249 

542  458  1000 

As  in  the  preceding  Table,  the  smaller  figures 
show  the  parts  in  1000. 

If  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  frequently 
five  or  six  persons  on  the  front  of  a  drag  and  only 
two  servants  on  the  back,  the  overloading  of  the 
front  wheels  becomes  more  apparent,  and  suggests 
an  additional  reason  for  not  putting  the  front  wheels 
too  far  under  the  body. 

The  weights  here  given  are  taken  without  the 
pole.  It  must  be  noticed  that  the  pole,  projecting  so 
far  in  front,  will  add  by  its  leverage  more  than  its 
own  weight  to  the  front  wheels,  the  difference  being 
taken  off  the  weight  on  the  hind  wheels.  This  can 
be  more  readily  appreciated  by  reflecting  that  a  pole 
might  be   made  so   long  that  with  a  comparatively 


132  DISTRIBUTION    OF    WEIGHT  CH.   IX 

small  weight  on  its  end,  it  could  balance  the  weight 
on  the  hind  wheels  so  as  to  lift  them  off  the 
ground,  and  thus  concentrate  the  whole  weight 
on  the  front  wheels  without  adding  very  much  to 
the  total  weight.  The  influence  of  a  pole  weighing, 
with  its  bars,  60  pounds,  is  shown  in  the  following 
Table.  The  weights,  as  shown  on  the  scale,  were 
as  follows  : — 

On  front  wheels,  without  the  pole 
with 

Increased  weight  on  front  wheels 

On  hind  wheels,  without  the  pole 
with 

Decreased  weight  on  hind  wheels 

The  increased  weight  on  the  front  wheels  is  due, 
one-half  to  the  weight  of  the  pole  and  one-half  to 
the  67  pounds  taken  off  the  hind  wheels,  but  the 
total  weight,  2531,  is  only  65  pounds  more  than  the 
weight  of  the  coach  without  the  pole. 

The  weights  are  given  as  they  came  out  in  the 
experiment  ;  theoretically,  they  should  balance  ex- 
actly, but  inaccuracies  in  the  scales  cause  the  small 
discrepancy. 

The  distribution  of  the  weight  on  the  front  wheels 
and  hind  wheels  depends  also  upon  the  inclination 
of  the  road. 

The  following  Table  gives  the  results  of  an  ex- 
periment  with  a  coach  weighing  2200  pounds  : — 


pds. 

1213 

1213 

»  » 

1345 

1345 

»  » 

132, 

>  > 

1253 

1253 

»  1 

1186 

1186 

1  1 

67, 

2466 

2531 

CH.   IX 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    WEIGHT 


*33 


Weight  on 

Front 

Hind 

Total 

Wheels. 

Wheels. 

Weight 

On  a  level  .          .          .           pds. 

•        I  194 

IO06 

2  200 

Hind  wheels  raised  3  inches    ,, 

I204 

994 

2198 

Front 

I  I90 

IOI4 

2204 

Therefore  in  going  up-hill,  a  portion  of  the  weight 
is  transferred  to  the  hind  wheels,  which  is  an  ad- 
vantage, since  they  are  larger  than  the  front  wheels. 

For  comparison,  the  following  average  weights  of 
different  vehicles  are  given  :  A  Char  a  bancs  Break, 
1600  pounds  ;  Demi-mail  Phaeton  without  perch, 
800;   City  Brougham,   1000  to  1100;  Landau,  1500. 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY 

We  now  come  to  one  of  the  divisions  of  our  sub- 
ject, important  from  a  practical  point  of  view  : — the 
position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  coach. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  a  body  is  that  point  in 
which  its  whole  weight  may  be  considered  as  con- 
centrated ;  in  a  symmetrical  body  of  equal  thick- 
ness and  equal  density  in  all  its  parts,  it  is  at  the 
centre  of  figure  of  the  body.  For 
example,  a  square  piece  of  board  of 
even  thickness  will  have  its  centre 
of  gravity  at  the  point  at  which  its 
two  diagonals  cross  (Fig.  64). 

If  at  that   point  we  bore  a  hole,  FlG-  64- 

and  hang  the  board  on  a  smooth  pin,  the  board  will 
remain   in   any  position    into  which   we   turn   it,    be- 


134 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY 


CH.    IX 


Fig.  65. 


cause  the   centre  of  suspension  and   the  centre  of 
gravity  coincide. 

If  we  suspend  it  from  some  other  point,  A,  we 
find  that  the  board  will  hang-  steadily  in  one  posi- 
tion only,  namely :  when  the  centre  of  gravity  is 
vertically  under  the  point  of  suspension. 

If  we  flatten  one  corner  slightly,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
65,  we  can  make  the  board  stand  upon  it,  when  G 
is  vertically  above  A,  but  it  will  be  in 
unstable  equilibrium  and  will  fall  to 
the  rieht  or  left  at  the  slightest  touch. 
We  therefore  say  that  the  board  is 
in  equilibrium  when  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  vertically  above  the  point 
of  support.  Conversely,  the  centre 
of  gravity  is  vertically  above  the  point  of  support 
when  the  body  is  in  equilibrium. 

Now,  a  coach,  looked  at  from  behind,  is  sym- 
metrical as  to  the  distribution  of  its  parts  about  its 
vertical  centre  line,  and  its  centre  of  gravity  must 
be,  therefore,  somewhere  in  that  cen- 
tre line.  If  we  tip  the  coach  on  the 
two  wheels  of  one  side  until  it  ex- 
actly balances  and  would  fall  to  either 
side,  the  centre  of  gravity  must  be  in 
the  vertical  line  passing  through  the 
point  of  support.  Since  it  is  also  in 
the  centre  line  of  the  coach,  it  must  be  at  the  inter- 
section of  these  two  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  66. 
We  can  determine  by  this  experiment  the  angle 


y/////////////////// 
Fig.  66. 


PLATE   XXIII 


Ql'00 


-'    < 


v.  \     ^ 

\V\    \  \ 

V.  Q4<)00\  \ 


\  \A-r 


'.    '-I.  \ 


'.    \ 


*. 


sP 


.-•<£* 


i.  .  i.  . i  .  .  I  . .1 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING    POSITION    OF   CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY. 

Since  a  coach  is  symmetrical,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  at  some  point  in  a  plane 
passing  vertically  through  the  centre  of  the  body.  When  the  coach  is  tipped  on 
the  wheels  of  one  side  until  it  balances  and  would  fall  either  way.  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  over  the  point  of  support,  and  must  therefore  be  in  a  plane  which  passes 
vertically  through  the  points  where  the  wheels  rest  on   the  ground. 

In  the  case  of  an  empty  coach  experimented  with,  the  balance  was  found  when 
the  wheels  on  the  higher  side  were  raised  to  the  position  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines 

With  a  load  of  1700  pounds  added  on  the  top,  the  position  of  balance  is  shown 
by  the  lines . . . .  . 


CH.   IX 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY 


135 


Fig.  67. 


at  which  the  coach  will  tip  over,  or,  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  elevation  of  the  wheel  on  the  higher  side 
which  will  cause  it  to  balance. 

It  will  be  evident  by  comparing  diagrams  A  and 
B  in  Fig.  67,  that  the  lower  the  centre  of  gravity 
for  the  same  wheel- 
base,  the  higher  the 
wheel  must  be  raised 
to  cause  a  tip-over ; 
whence  the  importance 
of  keeping  the  centre 
of  gravity  low. 

To  be  strictly  accurate,  we  must  say  that  we  have 
thus  far  only  found  a  horizontal  line  passing 
through  the  body  of  the  coach,  in  which  line  the 
centre  of  gravity  is  somewhere  situated.  If  we 
wish  to  know  the  position  of  the  point,  we  must  go 
through  the  same  operation  for  the  side  of  the 
coach,  but  since  a  coach  never  turns  over  forward 
or  backward,  where  the  centre  of  gravity  is  situated 
lengthwise  is  of  small  moment,  and  the  relative 
weights  on  the  front  and  hind  wheels  will  show  it 
with  sufficient  accuracy. 

Plate  XXIII.  shows  the  method  of  tipping  a  coach 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  position  of  its  centre 
of  gravity.  A  drag  weighing,  without  any  load,  2300 
pounds,  was  tipped  until  it  exactly  balanced  on  the 
wheels  of  one  side.  The  vertical  line  passing 
through  the  point  of  support,  intersected  the  centre 
line  of  the  coach  at  the  point   marked  2300  (which 


I36  CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY  CH.  IX 

is  therefore  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity), 
at  a  point  4  feet  above  the  line  joining  the  bottoms 
of  the  wheels  (that  is,  4  feet  from  the  ground  when 
the  coach  is  standing  level).  The  elevation  of  the 
higher  wheel  is  2  ft.  10  in.,  and  the  inclination  is  34 
degrees. 

If  the  coach  is  loaded  on  top  with  twelve  per- 
sons, weighing  together  1  700  pounds,  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  this  additional  load  will  be  at  the  point 
marked  1700;  and  the  resultant  centre  of  gravity 
of  that  additional  weight  and  of  the  empty  coach, 
will  be  at  the  point  marked  4000,  which  is  5  ft.  6 
in.  from  the  bottom  of  the  wheels,  the  whole  weight 
being  4000  pounds. 

If  the  coach  is  now  tipped,  the  centre  of  gravity, 
having  been  made  higher,  will  come  sooner  into  the 
vertical  line  over  the  point  of  support,  and  the  coach 
will  balance  when  the  higher  wheel  is  2  ft.  4  in.  from 
the  horizontal  line  or  the  inclination  27  degrees. 

It  is  evident  that  a  very  considerable  elevation  of 
the  road  sideways  is  required  to  upset  a  coach  at 
rest,  but  it  must  be  noticed  that  for  some  time  be- 
fore reaching  the  actual  balancing  point  the  coach 
becomes  very  tender,  to  use  a  yachting  expression. 
For  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  unloaded  coach, 
when  the  upper  wheel  was  2  ft.  6  in.  from  the  floor, 
the  coach  seemed  on  the  point  of  balancing,  al- 
though 4  inches  more  elevation  was  actually  re- 
quired to  make  it  do  so.  When,  therefore,  even  a 
slight  horizontal   force   is   acting  on   the   coach,   an 


CH.   IX  CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY  1 37 

elevation  of  the  wheel  very  much  less  than  that 
required  to  make  the  coach  balance,  will  result  in 
an  overturn.* 

Since  the  whole  weight  of  the  coach  may  be  con- 
sidered as  concentrated  at  the  centre  of  gravity, 
any  sideways  force,  resulting  from  the  momentum 
of  the  coach,  will  act  through  that  centre. 

If,  from  going  fast  over  a  bad  road  or  from  the 
horses  galloping  unevenly,  a  coach  gets  to  swinging 
laterally,  the  higher  the  centre  of 
gravity,  the  more  readily  will  the  A*~ 
coach  turn  over,  since  it  is  obvious  B  *  \\_ 
that  a   horizontal   force   applied   to 


the  coach   near  the   top  (as  at  A,  ////////V//////^//////, 

Fig.    68)    will    pull    it    over  more  FlG-  68- 

readily  than   the   same   force  applied  nearer  to  the 
ground  (as  at  B). 

Centrifugal  Force. — The  danger  in  turning  a 
corner  is  increased  by  a  high  centre  of  gravity. 
A  body  in  motion  has,  by  reason  of  its  inertia,  a 
tendency  to  continue  its  motion  in  the  original  di- 
rection until  it  is  acted  upon  by  some  exterior  force. 
A  coach  going  along  a  straight  road  is  deflected, 
when  it  comes  to  a  corner,   by  the    horses  pulling 

*  Corbett,  p.  26,  quotes  some  experiments  made  by  Vidler  in 
1820,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  in  the  case  of  a  mail,  the  wheel  was 
raised  26  inches  without  an  upset,  and  in  the  case  of  a  '  double 
bodied  coach,'  31  inches,  but  he  does  not  say  whether  this  was 
exactly  the  point  of  balance,  or  not. 


i.vs 


CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE 


CH,    IX 


it  round  the  turn  ;  it  has,  however,  a  tendency  to 
keep  on  in  the  straight  line,  and  this  tendency  is 
shown  as  a  force  acting-  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  coach,  pulling  it  outward  from  the 
circle  in  which  it  is  moving.  This  is  called  the 
centrifugal  force,  and  acting  as  it  does  upon  each 
particle  of  the  vehicle,  the  sum  of  these  numberless 
forces  acts  as  if  it  were  concentrated  at  the  centre 
of  gravity  ;  and  it  evidently  acts  in  a  direction  to 
overturn  the  coach  ;  moreover,  the  higher  it  is  ap- 
plied, the  more  effect  it  will  have  (see  Fig.  68). 
This  force  is  opposed  by  the  weight  of  the  coach 
which,  acting  downward  through  G,  keeps  the 
coach  to  the  ground. 

The  centrifugal  force  varies  exactly  with  the 
weight ;  increasing  the  actual  weight  does  not  in- 
crease  the  stability,  but  diminishing  the  height  of 
the  point,  at  which  the  centrifugal  force  is  applied, 
does  increase  it. 

In   the  diagram,   Fig.  69,  the  black  spot  indicates 


Fig.  69. 

the  weight  of  the  coach  concentrated  at  the  centre  of 
gravity,  C  is  the  centrifugal  force  acting  horizontally 
outward,  at  G  ;  the  weight  is  acting  vertically  down- 


CH.   IX  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  I  39 

ward  ;  A  is  the  point  at  which  the  outside  wheel 
rests  on  the  around.  The  centrifugal  force  tends 
to  turn  the  weight  about  the  point  A,  and  in  so 
doing  it  is  resisted  by  the  weight  at  G,  which  acts 
with  a  leverage  AB. 

As  the  coach  tips  more,  and  AG  becomes  more 
nearly  vertical,  the  leverage  AB  decreases,  and  the 
action  of  the  weight  to  resist  the  centrifugal  force 
becomes  less,  until  when  G  is  over  A,  the  weight  has 
no  leverage  and  the  coach  is  acted  upon  by  C  only. 

It  is  evident  that,  the  centrifugal  force  and  the 
weight  being  constant,  the  effect  of  the  centrifugal 
force  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  height  of  G 
above  the  ground.  It  is  also  evident  that,  from  the 
moment  the  wheel  which  is  on  the  inside  of  the 
curve,  leaves  the  ground  from  the  action  of  the 
centrifugal  force,  the  resistance  of  the  weight  to 
overturning,  diminishes. 

With  a  known  weight  of  coach,  the  centrifugal 
force,  corresponding  to  any  speed  round  a  turn  of 
any  radius,  may  be  computed.  The  formula  for 
this  computation  is  as  follows  : — 

centrifugal  force  =  —      ;  where 

O  1.1.1    } 

w  =  weight  in  pounds. 

v  =  velocity  in  feet  per  second. 

r  =  radius  of  curve,  in  feet. 

The  quantity  32.2,  usually  expressed  by  g,  is  the 
velocity  in  feet  per  second  that  a  falling  body  has 
at  the  end  of  the  first  second  of  its  fall. 


I40  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  CH.    IX 

It  is  evident  that  the  centrifugal  force  increases 
directly  with  the  weight  and  with  the  square  of  the 
speed,  and  also  as  the  radius  of  the  curve  diminishes, 
or  as  the  turn  becomes  sharper. 

Since  the  weight  keeps  the  coach  down  at  the 
same  time  that  it  increases  the  centrifugal  force,  the 
weight  does  not  affect  the  safety,  but  the  sharpness 
of  the  turn  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  safety, 
and  the  velocity,  or  speed,  very  much  more.  If  the 
radius  of  the  curve  is  halved,  the  centrifugal  force  is 
doubled,  but  if  the  speed  is  doubled,  the  centrifugal 
force  is  quadrupled.  Therefore,  a  corner  should 
be  always  turned  slowly. 

Inasmuch  as,  in  going  around  a  turn,  the  centrifu- 
gal force  tends  to  turn  the  coach  over  toward  the 
outside,  an  elevation  of  the  outside 
of  the  road  will  counteract  this  action, 
and  roads  being  usually  more  or  less 
crowned,  a  corner  to  the  right  can  be 
turned  more  safely  than  one  to  the 

Qleft,  because  being  on  the  right  hand 
side  of   the  road  the  off  wheels  are 
down  and  the  inclination  of  the  coach 
;zJ7^      I  counteracts  the  centrifugal  force  which 

is  acting  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow 
Fig.   70. 

(Fig.  70). 

In  turning   to   the   left,  the  coach   is   still   on   the 

right    hand    side    of   the    road,   and    the   centrifugal 

force  actino-  to  the  right,   the  effect   of  the  inclina- 

tion  of  the  coach  is  added,  and  not  opposed,  to  it. 


CH.   IX  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  141 

The     formula    for    the     centrifugal     force    being 
:  CF  ;  with  a  weight   of   2300   pounds  and   a 


2,2.21- 

radius  of  50  feet,  we  find,  corresponding  to  different 

velocities,  the  following  centrifugal  forces  : — 

At  7  miles  an  hour,  v  =  10.30  ft.  per  sec,  CF  =  15 1.5  pds. 
10         ,,  ,,       7'=  14.66     ,,  ,,       CF  ==  307.0    ,, 

15  ,,  ,,       7/  =  22.00     ,,  ,,       CF==69i.4    ,, 

With  a  weight  of  4000  pounds, 

At  7  miles  an  hour,  v  =  10.30  ft.  per  sec,  CF  =      263.6  pds. 
10         ,,  ,,       t=    14.66     ,,  ,,       CF=      534.0    ,, 

15  ,,  ,,       7'=  22.00     ,,  ,,       CF  =  1202.0    ,, 

In  an  empty  coach  weighing  2300  pounds,  the 
centre  of  gravity  is  4  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  weight,  2300,  will  act  at  the  end  of  an  arm 
AB,  Fig.  71,  2.5  feet  long,  with  an  effect  of  5750 
pounds  (2300  X  2.5  =  5750)  holding  the  coach 
down  ;  the  centrifugal  force  corresponding  to  a 
speed  of  seven  miles  an  hour,  151.5  pounds,  will  act 
at  the  end  of  the  arm  BG,  4  feet  long,  with  an  effect 
of  606  pounds  (15  1.5  :  4  =  606)  tending  to  over- 
turn the  coach. 

At  different  speeds,  the  forces  will  be  as  follows  : — 

FOR   THE   UNLOADED    COACH. 

At  7  miles  an  hour,  1 5 1 . 5  X  4  =     606  pounds.     I 
10         ,,  ,,       307.0x4=1228       ,,  £ 

15  .-  .-       691.4X4  =  2765       ,,  J 


I42  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  CH.   IX 

The   fractions  |,  \,  \,  show  the  proportions  of  the 

overturning-  force  to  the  holding  down  force. 

In  a  coach  weighing  2300  pounds, 

loaded  with  1  700  pounds  on  top,  the 

total    weight   will    be    4000    pounds, 

which  acting  at  the  end  of  the  arm 

AB  will    give   a  holding  down   force 

r  of    10,000  pounds.     The   centrifugal 

Fig.  71.  r  & 

force  will  act  at  the  centre  of  gravity, 
5.5  feet  above  the  ground,  and  at  different  speeds 
the  forces  will  be  as  follows  : — 

FOR    THE    LOADED    COACH. 

At  7  miles  an  hour,     263.6  X  5-5  —  '45°  pounds.     * 
10         ,,  „         534.0  X  5-5  =  2937       „  ^ 

15         ,,  ,,       1202.0  X  5.5  =  661 1 

In  the  case  of  an  empty  coach,  the  centrifugal 
force,  acting  at  a  height  of  four  feet,  required  to 
balance  the  weight  of  the  coach,  2300  pounds,  with 
a  leverage  of  2.5  feet,  will  be  1437  (2300  x  2.5  = 
5750,  and  1437  x  4  =  575°)-  This  is  the  force 
due  to  a  speed  of  21.6  miles  an  hour,  on  a 
curve  of  50  feet  radius,  at  which  speed  the  wheels 
on  the  inside  of  the  curve  would  be  lifted  from  the 
ground  and  the  coach  overturned. 

_..  -.2 

=  1437  or  vl —  1006.6 


32.2  X  5° 
v—  31.73  feet  per  second  or  21.6  miles  an  hour. 


CH.   IX  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  1 43 

In  the  case  of  the  loaded  coach,  the  centrifugal 
force,  acting  at  a  height  of  5.5  feet,  required  to 
balance  the  weight  of  the  coach,  4000  pounds,  with 
a  leverage  of  2.5  feet,  will  be  1818  (4000X2.5 
=  10,000,  and  1 81 8  X  5-5=  10,000).  This  is  the 
force  due  to  a  speed  of  16.5  miles  an  hour  on  a 
curve  of  50  feet  radius,  at  which  speed  the  coach 
would  be  turned  over. 

not    t;2 

=  1818  or  vl  =  732 


32.2  x  5° 
v  —  27  feet  per  second  or  16.5  miles  per  hour. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  are  the 
figures  for  a  perfectly  smooth  road,  level  cross- 
wise ;  trifling  depressions  in  the  road  causing  lat- 
eral swinging  will  overturn  the  coach  at  lower 
speeds. 

In  the  familiar  example  of  a  horse  galloping 
round  a  circus  ring,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
horse's  body  is  inclined  toward  the  centre  of  the 
circle  at  an  angle  which  depends  upon  the  velocity 
with  which  he  is  moving  ;  the  faster  he  goes  the 
more  he  leans. 

Another  example  is  that  of  a  bicycle  moving 
round  the  curve  at  the  end  of  a  cycling  track. 

Since  a  man  and  his  bicycle  may  be  said 
to  form  a  single  straight  line  from  his  head  to 
the  point  where  the  wheel  touches  the  ground, 
the  angle  of  this  line  with  the  horizontal  must 
be    such    that    the    action    of   the    centrifugal    force 


144 


CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE 


CH.   IX 


will  be  exactly  balanced  by  that  of  the  weight, 
or  else  the  bicycle  will  fall  to  one  side  or  the 
other. 

In  Fig.  72,  where  the  man  is  turning  to  the  left, 
the  centrifugal  force  will  be  developed  in  the  direc- 
tion indicated  by  the  arrowhead,  and  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  line  CF  ;  the  weight  acting  vertically 
downward  is  represented  by  C\V.  The  resultant 
of  these  two  forces  will  be  represented  in  amount 

by  CB  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  CD,  and  the  point  of  sup- 
port must  be  in  this  line,  as  at 
D,  to  prevent  the  man  from  fall- 
ing. II  the  speed,  and  conse- 
quently the  inclination,  is  not 
great,  the  bicycle  may  go  safely 
round  a  level  curve,  but  if  the 
speed  be  greatly  increased  the 
wheel  may  slip  on  the  ground. 
To  avoid  this,  the  surface  must  be  sloped,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  line,  until  it  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
inclination  of  the  rider. 

This  is  done  in  a  circus  ring  by  heaping  the  earth 
at  the  outer  edge,  and  in  a  cycling  track  by  sloping 
the  asphalt  path  on  the  curve,  at  angles  propor- 
tional to  the  squares  of  the  speeds,  one  part  of  the 
curve,  usually  the  lower,  having  steeper  slopes  than 
the  upper,  to  suit  all  speeds. 

The  inclinations  of  the  line  CD,  and  consequently 
that  of  the  lines  at  right  angles  to  it,  will  be  propor- 


Fig.  72. 


CH.   IX  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  1 45 

tional  to  the  squares  of  the  velocities,  the  radius  of 
the  curve  being  constant. 

For  a  curve  of  50  feet  radius  these  inclinations 
will  be  as  follows  : — * 

At     7  miles  an  hour,      3  degrees,  45  minutes. 
10         ,,  ,,         7  •>        35        " 

15  ..  ..  l6         --        42 

20         ,,  ,,  28  ,,        06        ,, 

25  ,,  „       41  .-        2I 

It  is  obvious,  that  if  the  angle  of  the  road  cross- 
wise is,  for  any  given  curve  and  speed,  that  which 
is  indicated  by  the  above  computation,  the  coach 
will  have  exactly  the  same  stability  as  if  it  were 
going  straight  on  a  level,  and  for  a  curve  of  50  feet 
radius  the  elevations  of  the  outer  wheel  are  given 
in  the  following  table  : — 

At    7  miles  an  hour,      3.8  inches. 
10         ,,  ,,         7.9 

15  --  .-       17-2 

20         ,,  ,,       28.4 

25  ,,  ,,       39.6 

These  quantities  are  the  natural  sines  of  the 
angles  given  above,  the  length  of  the  axle,  5  feet, 
being  unity. 

Since  the  base  of  the  coach  is  wide,  unlike  that  of 
a  bicycle,  the  resultant  line  of  the  centrifugal  force 
and  of  the  weight  will  fall  within  the  base  with  very 

*  In  these  computations,  the  centrifugal  force  is  to  the  weight  as 
the  tangent  of  the  angle  is  to  unity. 

10 


I46  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE  CH.   IX 

much  smaller  inclinations  ;  and  the  lower  the  centre 
of  gravity  compared  with  the  width  of  the  base 
the  greater  will  be  the  stability  at  any  speed,  or 
on  any  curve. 

It  must  be  also  noticed  that  the  load  of  the  coach 
has  been  supposed  to  be  in  the  centre  ;  if  it  should 
be  moved  over  to  the  inside  of  the  turn,  its  re- 
sistance to  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force  (by 
increasing  the  length  of  AB,  Fig.  69)  will  be  in- 
creased ;  if  it  is  moved  to  the  outside,  its  resistance 
will  be  correspondingly  diminished. 

If  the  surface  of  the  road  is  slippery,  a  coach, 
under  the  influence  of  a  centrifugal  force  much  less 
than  is  required  to  turn  it  over,  will  slide  bodily 
sideways,  and  if  it  brings  up  suddenly  against  an 
obstacle  or  in  the  gutter,  it  may  be  upset. 


CH.   X  147 


CHAPTER    X 

DRAUGHT 

The  amount  of  power,  usually  called  the  draught, 
which  is  required  to  overcome  the  resistance  to 
motion  of  a  vehicle,  may  be  examined  from  two 
points  of  view  :  first,  as  to  the  actual  mechanical 
force  expended  ;  and,  secondly,  as  to  the  way  in 
which  that  force  should  be  applied  by  an  animal. 

The  resistance  to  movement  of  a  sled,  is  simply 
that  due  to  the  friction  between  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  under  side  of  the  runner,  but  when 
wheels  are  used,  this  resistance  is  composed  of  the 
rolling  friction  between  the  tire  and  the  ground,  and 
the  friction  of  the  axle  in  its  box. 

The  rolling  friction  results  from  the  necessity  of 
surmounting  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  wheel,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7 3,  where  the 
power  to  move  the  load  is  act- 
ing in  the  direction  CP  parallel 
to  the  road,  and  the  weight  of 
the  vehicle  is  acting  vertically 
downward  through  the  centre 

«  > 

of  the  wheel  and  the  point  A, 

at    which    the    wheel    touches 

the  ground.      In  order  to  surmount  the  obstacle  B, 

he  power  acting  on   the  bent  lever  CBA  must  lift 


148  DRAUGHT  CH.  X 

the  weight,  and  its  ability  to  do  so  depends  ob- 
viously upon  the  relative  lengths  of  the  two  arms 
CB  and  AB.  CB  is  the  radius  of  the  wheel,  and 
AB  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  obstacle  as 
indicated  at  B.  For  the  same  size  of  wheel,  there- 
fore, the  smaller  the  obstacles,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  smoother  the  road,  the  less  will  be  the  resist- 
ance to  rolling,  and  for  the  same  roughness  of  road 
the  larger  the  wheel,  the  less  will  be  the  resistance. 

The  length  of  the  arm  AB,  in  the  case  of  the  small 
obstacles,  which  make  up  the  roughness,  will  be 
practically  the  same  as  the  arc  AB,  and  will  be 
measured  by  the  angle  BCA.  For  any  given  sur- 
face of  road,  this  arc  may  be  represented  by  a  con- 
stant, which,  multiplied  by  the  radii  of  various  wheels, 
will  measure  the  rolling  resistance.  Theoretically, 
therefore,  this  resistance  should  be  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  diameter  of  the  wheel.  In  1838- 1840,  a 
series  of  elaborate  experiments  made  by  Morin  *  for 
the  French  Government,  on  the  Traction  of  Vehicles, 
confirmed  this  as  a  practical  fact ;  it  may  be  there- 
fore laid  down  as  a  law,  that  on  any  given  road, 
the  rolling  friction  will  diminish  directly  in  propor- 
tion   as    the    size    of  the    wheel    is    increased. f      If 


*  Notwithstanding  the  comparatively  early  date  of  these  experi- 
ments they  are  still  the  most  satisfactory  that  we  have,  and  the  most 
complete,  having  been  made  on  a  very  large  scale,  with  heavy  vehi- 
cles, on  all  kinds  of  roads  ;  later  experiments  have  only  confirmed 
them. 

f  Dupuit  and  other  writers  maintained  that  resistance  diminished 


CH.   X  ROLLING 'FRICTION  1 49 

the  surface  of  the  road  is  at  all  loose  or  soft,  as  in 
newly  stoned  roads,  or  in  roads  wet,  and  partly 
disintegrated  by  hauling  over  them,  the  resistance 
to  rolling  will  be  measured  not  only  by  the  effort 
required  to  surmount  the  obstacle,  but  also  by  the 
force  expended  in  pushing,  in  front  of  the  wheel,  the 
loose  stones  or  particles  which  oppose  its  motion. 

If  a  wheel  rolling  on  ice  meets  a  stone,  it  is  more 
likely  to  push  the  stone  before  it,  sliding  it  on  the 
ice,  than  to  mount  over  it ;  and  in  a  loose  road 
some  of  this  sliding,  with  the  consequent  friction 
between  the  particles  of  the  road,  takes  place.  Into 
such  a  road  a  narrow  wheel  will  sink  deeper  than  a 
wide  one,  or  will,  in  other  words,  form  a  rut,  and 
will  have  to  push  a  portion  of  the  material  forward 
before  surmounting  it.  On  soft  ground,  therefore, 
increased  width  of  tire  is  an  advantage,  and  Morin's 
experiments  indicate,  that  up  to  six  inches  of  width 
the  draught  diminished,  but  that  no  advantage  was 
gained     by    a    further    increase.      On    good     roads 

in  proportion  to  the  square  root  of  the  diameter,  while  Morin's  ex- 
periments seem  to  show  that  it  changes  directly  as  the  diameter. 

Accurately,  the  relation  between  the  resistance  and  the  diameter 
depends  on  the  relation  of  the  sine  and  the  cosine  of  the  angle  at  the 
centre  of  the  wheel,  included  between  the  vertical  radius  CA,  and 
the  radius  CB  which  ends  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  rim  with 
the  obstacle  (Fig.  73).  On  ordinary  roads  the  relation  is  measured 
closely  enough  by  the  diameter,  but  on  rough,  stony  roads  it  is 
measured  more  nearly  by  the  square  root  of  the  diameter,  and  the 
advantage  of  the  larger  diameter,  compared  with  that  of  the  smaller 
one,  diminishes. 


I50  WIDTH    OF    TIRE  CH.   X 

nothing  was  gained  by  having  a  greater  width  than 
four  inches,  and  on  pavement  less  was  sufficient. 
These  figures  refer  to  heavy  loads,  2000  to  2500 
pounds  on  each  wheel,  and  are  applicable  only  to 
wheels  that  are  very  nearly  cylindrical,  vertical,  and 
with  horizontal  axles  (see  notes  on  Wheels  in  Chap- 
ter III.),  in  which  case  there  is  no  grinding  action  on 
the  road.  On  a  very  hard,  smooth  road,  such  as 
good  macadam  or  the  best  pavement,  the  draught 
appears  to  be  independent  of  the  width  of  the  tire. 
There  always  has  been  a  belief  that  a  narrow  tire 
affords  an  easier  draught,  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
opinion  was  formed  when  wheels  had  more  dish 
and  axles  more  drop  than  is  now  given  in  the  best 
practice,  in  which  case,  the  wheel  being  a  section 
of  a  cone,  the  tire  ground  on  the  road. 

Even  on  a  hard,  unyielding  road  like  a  stone  pave- 
ment, if  it  is  roughs  a  wide  tire  is  advantageous, 
inasmuch  as  it  prevents  the  wheel  from  dropping  into 
the  inequalities  between  the  stones. 

If  the  wheel  is  nearly  or  quite  cylindrical,  an  in- 
creased width  of  tire  is  an  advantage  to  the  road 
itself,  but  with  coned  wheels  the  increased  width  is 
a  disadvantage  ;  it  increases  the  grinding  action. 

It  is  obvious,  that  in  stiff  mud,  sand,  or  ordinary 
earth,  such  as  is  crossed  in  hauling'  over  a  field,  the 
wheel,  sinking  in  under  the  pressure  of  the  load,  is 
constantly  surmounting  a  little  hill  in  front  of  it,  and 
leaving  an  open  rut  behind  it,  which,  owing  to  the 
nonelasticity  of   the   material,    is   not   filled  up.      If, 


CH.  X  PNEUMATIC    TIRE  I  5  I 

however,  the  wheel  is  drawn  over  an  elastic  mate- 
rial, india-rubber,  for  instance,  as  in  some  of  Morin's 
experiments,  the  material  recovers  its  form  behind 
the  wheel,  and  in  so  doing  restores  most  of  the 
force  expended  in  compressing  it.  Notwithstanding, 
therefore,  that  the  wheel  sinks  into  such  an  elastic 
track,  hauling  over  it  requires  but  little  more  effort 
than  over  a  hard  surface.  With  carriages  this  con- 
dition occurs  very  nearly,  when  india-rubber  tires 
are  used,  which,  notwithstanding  their  constant  com- 
pression in  front  of  the  wheel,  again  give  out  the 
force  behind  the  point  of  contact  with  the  ground.* 
Such  tires  seem  to  increase  the  draught  somewhat, 
but  less  than  might  be  expected,  which  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  diminish  the  shocks.  Experiment 
shows  that,  while  at  a  walk,  the  resistance  on  hard 
roads  is  the  same  for  vehicles  with  or  without  springs, 
it  increases  with  the  speed  more  rapidly  for  rigid 
vehicles  than  for  those  on  springs.  This  is  no  doubt 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  shocks  which  occur  at  higher 
speeds  are  largely  taken  up  by  the  springs,  and  the 
force  thus  absorbed  is  again  given  out  by  them,  and 
not  all  wasted  in  raising  the  load  and  hammering  the 
road,  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the  interpo- 
sition of  the  elastic  rubber. 

The   pneumatic  tire,  by  which  the  whole  load  is 
literally  floated  on  air,  has  given  results  at  first  some- 

*  This  springing  back  of  the  road,  or  of  the  tire,  has  been  termed 
resilience  by  some  of  the  later  experimenters  on  Draught. 


I52  PNEUMATIC    TIRE  CH.   X 

what  unexpected  to  the  mechanic.  Instead  of  in- 
creasing the  draught  even  slightly,  it  has  diminished 
it,  owing  to  the  perfect  elasticity  of  the  air  contained 
in  the  tubular  tire  preventing  any  appreciable  rising 
of  the  weight  of  the  carriage  in  passing  over  an 
obstacle,  the  resistance  merely  forcing  the  air  from 
one  part  of  the  tube  to  another,  and  experiment 
has  shown  (Michelin,  p.  21)  that  the  saving  in 
draught  is  greater  as  the  speed  is  higher  :  for  in- 
stance, with  the  same  spring  vehicle  : — 
With  iron  tires  : 

At  a  walk,        3      ms.  pr  hour,  the  traction  was  48  pds  pr  ton. 
,,     trot,         6. 5    ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  , ,     59     ,, 

,,    fast  trot,  9.4    ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,     77     ,, 

With  pneumatic  tires  : 

At  a  walk,  the  traction  was  48  pds  pr  ton. 

,,   the  other  speeds,    ,,         ,,  ,,     50    ,, 

The  pneumatic  tire,  almost  in  exactly  its  present 
form,  was  invented  and  patented  in  1845,  by  R.  W. 
Thomson,  of  London.  (English  Patent  Specifica- 
tion, a.d.  1845,  No.  10990.)  Experiments  made  with 
it,  reported  in  The  Mechanics  Magazine,  of  March 
27th  1847,  gave  the  following  results  : — 

A  carriage  weighing  1050  pounds,  running  at  9 
miles  an  hour,  on  a  good  macadam  road,  required 
28  pounds  of  tractive  force  (53.3  pds  per  ton)  with 
pneumatic  tires,  and  45  pounds  (85.6  pds  per  ton) 
with  iron  tires.  On  broken  stone,  rough,  the  force 
required  was    38   pounds   (72.3    pds    per  ton)  with 


CH.   X  ROLLING    FRICTION  1 53 

pneumatic  tires  and  120  pounds  (228  pds  per  ton) 
with  iron  tires, — about  the  same  results  which  are 
obtained  now. 

Notwithstanding  these  successes,  the  device 
seems  to  have  been  entirely  lost  sight  of  until  it 
was  re-invented  a  few  years  ago. 

The  ton  here  used,  as  in  all  the  computations 
which  follow,  is  that  of  2000  pounds. 

Morin's  experiments,  which  are  especially  valu- 
able, because  they  were  made  with  large  vehicles  on 
the  road  and  not  with  small  models,  further  showed 
that  the  rolling  friction  increased  directly  with  the 
weight  of  the  carriage  and  load,  and  that  for  a  mven 
kind  of  road  it  could  be   computed   by  the   simple 

P 
formula,  R  =  A-,  where  P  is  the  weight  (pressure), 

r  the  radius  of  the  wheel,  and  A  a  constant  or  coeffi- 
cient,"1 determined  by  experiment. 

*  A  coefficient  is  a  proportion  and  can  be  thus  exemplified  :  If  A 
and  B  are  associated  in  a  business  of  which  A  owns  %  and  B  ?/ ,  the 
coefficient  of  A  will  be  %  or  0.25,  so  that  any  profits  or  losses  must 
be  multiplied  by  0.25  to  determine  A's  share.  In  the  friction  of  a 
body  sliding  on  a  surface,  if  the  coefficient  of  friction  is  0.05,  the 
weight  of  the  body  multiplied  by  0.05  expresses  the  friction,  which  in 
this  case  will  be  5  per  cent,  of  the  weight  or  pressure. 

In  using  the  French  coefficients  from  Morin's  book,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  the  formula  for  the  rolling  friction,  the  wheel 
radius  in  metres  enters  as  a  divisor,  and  the  French  coefficient  must 
be  multiplied  by  3.281,  the  value  of  a  metre  in  feet,  to  obtain  a 
coefficient  for  use  with  English  measures.  For  instance,  A  (French) 
0.015  's  the  same  as  A  (English)  0.05. 

In  the  formula  for  resistance  from  axle  friction,  the  multiplier  ^  1S 


154 


ROLLING    FRICTION 


CH.  X 


For  example  :  if  P  =  10,000  pounds,  r=  2.5  feet, 
and  A  =  0.05,  which  is  the  constant  derived  from  a 
number  of  experiments  made  on  a  road  of  the  same 
character  as  that  for  which  this  resistance  is  now  to 
be  computed,  R  will  equal  0.05^^,  or  200  pounds, 
g-V  of  the  load.  If  P  =  10,000  and  the  radius  of 
the  wheel  is  increased  to  three  feet,  the  rolling  fric- 
tion  will  be  reduced  to  166.6  pounds,  eV  of  the  load. 
If  the  quality  of  the  road  changes  for  the  worse, 
the  value  of  A  will  increase.  On  a  road  covered 
with  loose  gravel  two  inches  deep,  Morin,  p  .144, 
found  the  value  of  A  to  be  0.165,  and  with  this  co- 
efficient the  resistance  will  become  o.iG^X1-^^0 
=  660  pounds,  or  TV  of  the  load. 

As  to  the  influence  of  the  width  of  the  tire  in 
diminishing  the  draught,  Morin's  experiments  give 
the  following  results  (p.  132)  : — 


In  thick  mud,  on  a  road,  a  7       in.  tire 

a  4)4  in. 
On  a  dry  earth  road 


On  a  hard  road 
On  a  pavement 


a  7  in. 
a  4)4  in. 
a  zy%  in. 
a  7  in. 
a  4  y2  in. 
a  7  in. 
a  4%  in. 
a  2V%  in. 


In  English  units. 

gave  A  =  0.097 
A  =  0.084 
A  =  0.073 
A  =  0.068 
A  =  0.084 
A  =  0.052 
A  =  0.045 
A  =  0.035 
A  =  0.030 
A  =  0.030 


On  roads,  therefore,  while  there  does  not  seem  to 
be  much  difference  in    the   resistance  of  wide   and 


a  ratio  which  is  the  same  whether  feet  or  metres  are  used,  and  there- 
fore the  French/ and  the  English /have  the  same  value. 


CH.   X  DRAUGHT  I  55 

narrow  tires,  a  narrow  tire  gave  somewhat  the  best 
results.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  the  wide 
tire  is  very  wide,  seven  inches,  and  unfortunately 
Morin  does  not  give  the  dish  of  the  wheel  or  the 
drop  of  the  axle,  but  he  does  say,  p.  133,  that,  'the 
'  inclination  of  the  axle-arm,  obliging  the  wheel  to 
'  move  about  the  axis  of  a  cone,  the  rubbing  of  the 
'  surface  of  the  tire  on  the  ground,  which  is  the  con- 
'  sequence,  tends  to  increase  the  resistance  of  the 
'  wider  wheel.'  This  is  no  doubt  the  whole  reason 
for  the  increase  of  friction,  and  since  all  axle-arms 
are  somewhat  inclined,  for  the  reasons  already  given 
when  treating  of  Wheels,  it  would  seem  that  the 
disadvantage  of  the  grinding  counterbalances  an 
advantage  from  increased  width. *  In  farm  wagons 
used  on  soft  ground  and  grass,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  a  width  of  tire  up  to  at  least  four  inches,  is  an 
advantage,  and  experience  has  indicated  the  same 
thing  at  many  sandy  sea-shore  places  ;  but  to  get 
the  best  result,  the  wheel  must  be  nearly  straight 
and  vertical.  As  far  as  damage  to  the  road  itself 
goes,  it  would  seem  from  experiments,  that  on  hard, 
good  surfaces,  well  united,  and  with  a  hard  bottom, 


*  In  the  experiments  made  at  the  Bedford  Agricultural  Show, 
England,  July  1874,  with  two  loaded  wagons  practically  alike,  ex- 
cept that  in  one  case  the  inclination  of  the  face  of  the  wheel  was  4 
degrees,  corresponding  to  an  overhang  of  3  inches  or  1  ^  inch  dish, 
and  in  the  other  case  \%  degrees,  \]/z  inch  overhang  or  }{  inch 
dish,  the  proportions  of  draught  were  -^  of  the  load  for  the  more  in- 
clined wheel  and  -^  for  the  straighter  wheel. 


156  WIDTH    OF    TIRE  CH.   X 

the  width  is  not  important,  but  when  only  a  thin 
layer  on  top  is  hard,  and  the  under  part  soft, 
the  wide  tire  injures  the  road  much  less  than  the 
narrow  one.  The  somewhat  obsolete  cobble-stone 
pavement  of  eastern  American  cities  is  generally 
laid  upon  an  insufficient  layer  of  gravel,  on  un- 
drained  soil,  which,  in  wet  weather  or  when  the 
frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground,  is  soft,  and  the 
stones,  being  round,  and  touching  each  other  only 
at  points,  become  unstable,  and  the  narrow  tires 
of  heavily  loaded  carts  soon  displace  them  and  ruin 
the  pavement. 

Under  these  circumstances,  city  ordinances  which 
encourage  the  use  of  wide  tires  are  eminently 
proper,  and  since  it  seems  to  be  clearly  shown  that 
if  the  width  does  not  diminish  the  traction,  it  does 
not  increase  it  (provided  the  wheel  is  nearly  ver- 
tical and  therefore  cylindrical),  wide  tires  cause  no 
injury  to  the  interests  of  the  carter.  The  shocks 
and  jerks  felt  by  the  horse  in  pulling  a  cart  through 
ruts  and  over  little  holes  must  be  vastly  more 
fatiouino-  to  the  animal  than  the  simple  traction, 
and  these  shocks  are  much  reduced  by  a  wide  tire 
which  spans  many  inequalities  into  which  a  narrow 
one  will  drop. 

Among  late  experiments  on  '  Draught'  are  those 
made  by  Mr  H.  J.  Waters,  of  The  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  of  Missouri, 
reported  in  The  Engineering  Record  of  March  12, 
1898.     Tires    of   1)4   and    6    inches    in  width  were 


CH.   X  AXLE    FRICTION  I  57 

compared,  with  the  results  here  noted  :  On  almost 
all  roads,  the  wide  tire  diminished  the  traction  by 
an  amount  varying  from  16  to  30  per  cent.,  but 
where  the  surface  was  sticky  and  there  was  a 
smooth  hard  road  below,  the  narrow  tire  cut  clown 
to  the  hard  road,  whereas  the  wide  tire  adhered  to 
the  mud,  showing  an  advantage  for  the  narrow  tire 
of  20  or  30  per  cent.  In  14  experiments  out  of  a 
total  of  21,  with  greatly  varying  conditions,  there 
was  shown  a  decided  advantage  in  the  use  of  a 
wide  tire,  and  in  all  cases  the  road  was  improved 
by  the  passage  over  it  of  the  wide  tire. 

We  have  so  far  considered  only  the  rolling  friction 
of  the  wheel,  but  to  obtain  the  whole  resistance  to 
the  forward  motion  of  the  vehicle  we  must  add  the 
friction  between  the  axle  and  its  box.  This  is  a 
sliding  friction,  the  laws  of  which,  as  determined  by 
large  number  of  experiments  of  different  investi- 
gators, are,  within  the  limits  met  with  in  well-de- 
signed machinery,  as  follows  : — 

This  friction  is  directly  proportional  to  the  pressure 
per  unit  of  surface  ;  that  is,  between  any  two  given 
surfaces,  if  the  pressure  is  one  hundred  pounds  per 
square  inch,  the  friction  will  be  twice  as  great  as  if 
it  were  fifty  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  therefore 
independent  of  the  absolute  amount  of  surface,  be- 
cause with  the  same  weight,  if  the  rubbing  surface 
is  increased,  the  pressure  per  square  inch  is  dimin- 
ished. A  brick,  for  example,  will  move  with  just 
the   same  amount  of  friction   over  the   surface  of  a 


158 


AXLE    FRICTION 


CH.   X 


table,  whether  it  is  on  its  Mat  face,  its  edee,  or  its 
end.  The  friction,  therefore,  between  an  axle  and  its 
box  is  directly  proportional  to  the  weight  of  the  car- 
riage without  its  wheels,  and  is  not  dependent  upon 
the  length  of  the  axle-arm.  The  absolute  friction 
of  the  axle  depends  very  slightly  upon  the  diameter, 
but  the  resistance  to  the  turning  of  the  wheel  due 
to  friction,  acts  at  the  surface  of  the  axle  with  a 
leverage  which  is  represented  by  the  radius  (or 
semi-diameter)  of  the  axle-arm.  If  the  axle  is  raised 
off  of  the  ground  so  that  the  wheel  can  revolve 
freely,  the  force  applied  to  the  outside  of  the  wheel 

to  make  it  turn  will  be  re- 
sisted by  the  friction  at  r,  Fig. 
74,  and  the  force  will  act  with 
a  leverage  RO.  The  longer 
RO  is,  the  less  force  will  be  re- 
quired, applied  at  R,  to  turn 
the  wheel,  and  the  loneer  rO 
is,  the  greater  will  be  the  re- 
sistance of  the  friction.  The 
ease,  therefore,  with  which  the  wheel  can  be  turned 
will  depend  upon  the  relation,  or  ratio  between  RO 
and  rO  ;  the  larger  the  axle  the  greater  the  effect 
of  the  friction,  and  its  amount  will  be  measured  by 
the  ratio  *R  multiplied  by  a  constant  to  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment. 

This  constant,  or  coefficient,   usually  designated  f 
by  writers  upon  this  subject,  is  found,  for  polished, 
well-oiled  metal  surfaces,  to  have  a  value,  according 


77777777777777777777777?. 
Fig.    74 


CH.   X  AXLE    FRICTION  1 59 

to  Morin,  of  from  0.05  to  0.065.  Later  experi- 
ments with  machine  shafting  bring  this  to  a  lower 
figure,  but  for  coach  axles  0.065  *s  a  ^air  value. 
This  friction  is  much  diminished  by  thorough  oil- 
ing, and  with  a  constant  supply,  or  bath,  of  oil  it  is 
sometimes  not  over  0.005,  or  one-tenth  of  the  value 
given  above.  When  the  bearing  is  thus  flooded 
with  oil,  the  surfaces  do  not  touch  each  other  at  all, 
and  the  friction  is  that  of  a  fluid. 

This  condition  cannot  be  fully  maintained  in  a 
wheel,  but  the  distribution  of  the  oil  by  means  of 
shallow  grooves  in  the  axle-arm,  or  in  the  box,  and 
a  large  supply  of  oil  in  the  wheel-cap,  approach 
it  and  form  an  important  feature  of  the  Collinge 
axle.  Heating  the  oil,  even  to  a  moderate  de- 
gree, increases  the  friction,  and  great  heating,  as 
we  all  know,  by  the  expansion  of  the  arm,  soon 
brings  the  wheel  to  a  stop. 

As  is  now  well  exemplified  in  the  bicycle,  the 
ball-bearing,  by  converting  the  sliding  axle  friction 
into  rolling  friction  between  very  hard  and  smooth 
surfaces,  diminishes  greatly  the  resistance  to  the 
turning  of  the  wheel.  The  rolline  friction  between 
perfectly  spherical,  highly  polished,  hard,  steel  balls 
and  a  hard,  steel  surface  is  so  small  that  it  may  be 
said  to  be  nothing.  In  the  bicycle,  this  has  been 
successfully  turned  to  account,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  ball-bearing  should  not  be  adopted 
in  a  coach  wheel,  except  for  the  comparative  com- 
plication of  such  arrangements,   and    from  the  fact 


l6o  BALL-BEARINGS  CH.   X 

that  the  horse,  to  whom  the  draught  is  of  prime 
consequence,  is  not  able  to  express  his  opinion  as 
readily  as  the  human  cyclist.  Some  forms  of  car- 
riage axles  with  ball-bearings  have  been  already 
brought  out  but  are  not  yet  in  general  use. 

The  results  of  some  late  experiments,  made  at 
the  Engineering  Department  of  Yorkshire  College, 
Leeds  {Engineering,  Sept.  11,  1896),  are  interesting 
as  showing"  the  resistance  to  crushing  of  hard  steel 
balls.  Balls  of  a  quarter-inch  diameter  stood  a 
pressure  of  five  tons  each,  before  crushing  ;  those 
of  a  half-inch,  more  than  ten  tons.  These  were 
statical  pressures  ;  the  balls  would  not  probably 
stand  so  much  if  they  were  in  rolling  motion. 

Taking  0.063  as  the  coefficient  of  friction,  r  the 
radius  of  the  axle,  and  R  that  of  the  wheel,  or  of 
the  average  of  the  front  and  hind  wheels,  the  ex- 
pression 0.065   p   w^    represent    the    proportion   of 

the  weight  of  the  coach  without  its  wheels,  which 
measures  the  axle  friction.  It  is  of  course  the 
weight  of  the  coach  resting  on  the  axles,  that 
causes  the  friction  on  the  axles.  If,  therefore,  a 
coach  with  its  load,  and  without  its  wheels,  weighs 
3100  pounds,  has  axles  two  inches  in  diameter,  and 
wheels  averaging  46  inches  in  diameter,  the  expres- 
sion will  be/"R  (W  —  w)t*  or  0.065  -£$  3100  =  8.77 
pounds,  as  the  amount  of  the  axle  friction,  and 
since  experiment    gives    an    average  of  70  pounds 

*  W  being  the  weight  of  the  whole  coach  and  w  that  of  the  wheels. 


CH.  X 


DRAUGHT  I  6 I 


per  ton  (of  2000  pounds),  as  the  total  resistance 
to  motion  in  a  coach  on  a  good  hard  road  (see  p. 
163),  that  resistance  for  a  weight  of  3400  pounds, 
will  amount  to  119  pounds,  of  which  9  pounds,  or 
7.5  per  cent.,  will  be  axle  friction,  and  110  pounds, 
or  92.5  per  cent.,  rolling  friction. 

The  total  resistance  to  forward  motion  on  a  level 
surface  is  therefore  represented  by  the  rolling 
friction    and    the    axle    friction    added    together,    or 

by  the  formula  P  =  A  ^  +/- — ^7^  in  which: — 

P  is  the  power  required  to  draw  the  vehicle. 

A  is  the  constant  for  rolling  friction  for  a  given 
road  surface  (see  p.  153)  ;  for  a  hard  road  0.0615. 

W,  the  total  weight  of  the  coach  and  load. 

w,  the  weight  of  the  wheels. 

R,  the  radius  of  the  wheel  (or  the  mean  of  the 
radii  of  the  front  wheels  and  hind  wheels). 

r,  the  radius  of  the  axle-arm. 

f,  the  coefficient  of  friction,  0.065. 

Example  of  computation  for  a  coach  : — 


W  =  3400  pounds. 

iu  =  300  pounds. 

R  =  23  inches,  or  1.9  foot. 

r    =  1  inch,  or  .083  foot. 

A  =0.0615. 

/    =0.065. 

W                     34°° 
A  —  =oo6k  -     — ==  1 10  Rolling  friction 
R                   D    1.9 

(W  —  w)r 
J        R 

(3400  —  300)0.083                ,    ,     ..    . 
-  0  06;  ^^^                           =      9  Axle  friction 

I.Q 

9                          II9  =  P 

I  [ 


62 


DRAUGHT 


CH.  X 


The  proportion  of  the  total  resistance  due  to 
friction  of  the  axle  being  small,  it  is  evident  that 
the  improvement  of  the  road  surface  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  improvement  of  the  axle,  and 
this  is  shown  in  the  orain  arising  from  the  use  of 
pneumatic  tires,  which  is  equivalent  to  having  a 
smoother  road. 

The  following  tables  gfive  an  abstract  of  some 
experiments  on  the  force  required  to  draw  vehicles 
under  different  conditions  : — 


Kind  of  Vehicle. 


Description  of  Road. 


Proportion 
of  Draught 
to  Weight. 


Draught  in 

Pounds 

per  Ton  of 

2000  Pounds. 


Experiments  of  Morin  (pp.  182,  184). 


Diligence. 

Diameter  of  wheels, 

1 . 1 5  metre. 

3  ft.  9  in. 

Pavement 

Dry  macadam 

Muddv  macadam     .... 

Dry  earth   with   gravel  4   in. 
deep 

ft 

33-3 
40.0 
74.0 
74.0 

250.0 

Cart. 

Diameter  of  wheels, 

I.60  metre. 

5  ft-  3  in- 

Dry  macadam  .    . 

Muddv  macadam     .    .         .    . 

Dry  earth  with   gravel   4  in. 
deep 

ft 
ft 

ft 
ft 

23-3 
3°-3 
55-5 

55-5 

181. 0 

Cart. 

Diameter  of  wheels, 

2.0  metres. 

6  ft.  6  in. 

Pavement 

Dry  macadam 

Muddv  macadam 

Drv  earth 

Diy  earth  with   gravel  4   in. 

T07 
ft 
ft 
ft 

A 

1S.7 
24.4 
44-4 
44.4 

142.8 

CH.  X 


DRAUGHT 


16 


3 


Kind  of  Vehicle. 


Description  of  Road. 


Proportion 
of  Draught 
to  Weight. 


Draught  in 

Pounds 

per  Ton  of 

2000  Pounds. 


Experiments  of  Macniell.     Report  of  Committee. 


Stage  Coach. 

Weight,     with     load, 

3400  pounds. 

Good  Telford  road. 
6  miles  per  hour 

10  miles  per  hour       .... 

68.0 
72.4 
83-3 

Wagon, 
at  2.y2  miles  per  hour, 

2300  pounds. 

Diameter    of    wheels 

not  given. 

Telford      ~> 
Macadam  J 
Gravel  on  earth 

31.0 

56.0 
122.0 

Bedford  Experiments.     Engineering,  July  io,  1874. 


Wagons. 
Mean  diameter  of 

wheels,  4  ft., 
without  springs. 

IT 

43- 6 
182.2 

The  same  with 
springs. 

35-4 
189.7 

Carts. 

Diameter  of  wheels, 

4  ft.  6  in. 

29.4 
126.3 

Experiments  of  Michelin,    1896. 


Brake, 

1270  pounds. 

Mean  diameter  of 

wheels,  3  ft.  4  in. , 

iron  tires. 

Good  road. 

46.0 
59.0 
77.0 

The  same  with 
pneumatic  tires. 

3      miles  per  hour 

A 
A 
A 

48.0 
50.0 
50.0 

164  DRAUGHT  CH.   X 

From  the  Bedford  Experiments  on  Traction. 


B 

M 

Road. 

Field. 

Z   f- 

Mean     Diametb 
of  Wheels. 

Inclination  of 
Wheels  to  th 
Vertical. 

M 

H 

O 

X 
H 
0 

Proportion 
of  Draught  0 
Field   to   tha 
on  Road. 

• 

Draught  per 
2000  Pound 
Ton. 

1  (raught  per 
2000  Pound 
Ton. 

Ft.     In. 

Degrees. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Times. 

r 

4       0 

4 

2^ 

44.I 

205.O 

4.6 

■\ 

4       0 

4 

4 

45- 1 

168.8 

3-7 

4       0 

*x 

2iA 

39-i 

183.O 

4-7 

X     ^ 

s% 

3 

44.8 

200.0 

4-5 

£  tun 

4       0 

2 

4 

47-3 

183.9 

3-8 

*i  2 

4       0 

VA 

4 

39-4 

167.8 

4.2 

0 

fa 

3X 

4^ 

167.8 

5 

4 

45-7 

l8l. 2 

4.0 

.    .    . 

2^ 

2% 

29.6 

188.4 

6-3 

vm 

•0        V 

4       O 

5 

2^ 

41.2 

191. 0 

4-7 

)?s- 

wo-whee 
Carts. 

4       6 

4       7 

2^ 

3^ 

4 

26.7 
32.1 

I25.O 
127.6 

4.6 
4.0 

Withou 
springs 

H 

An  examination  of  the  Bedford  Experiments 
shows  :  1  st,  That  the  draught  on  the  soft  field  is 
about  41^  times  that  on  the  hard  road  ;  2nd,  that 
with  a  wide  tire  this  difference  is  less  ;  3rd,  that 
an  increased  angle  of  the  wheel  to  the  vertical 
increases  the  draught  ;  4th,  that  carts  have  a 
lighter  draught  than  wagons,  and  that  the  differ- 
ence is  greater  than  is  merely  in  proportion  to  the 
greater  size  of  their  wheels  ;  and  5th,  that  springs 
diminish  the  draught  on  the  road,  but  not  on  the 
field. 

These  results  agree,  substantially,  with  those 
obtained    from  other  experiments,   but   it    must    be 


CH.   X  DRAUGHT  I 65 

noted  that  it  is  difficult  to  compare  such  experi- 
ments with  accuracy,  on  account  of  varying  condi- 
tions. In  this  abstract  of  the  Bedford  Experiments, 
for  instance,  the  mean  size  of  the  front  and  hind 
wheels  is  given  ;  in  the  full  Report,  their  respective 
sizes  are  given  with  the  proportions  of  the  full  load 
on  each.  The  fief u res  would  be  somewhat  different 
if  the  load  of  the  four-wheeled  wagon  were  placed 
principally  on  the  front  wheels  or  on  the  hind  wheels. 
The  inclination  of  the  wheels,  the  character  of  the 
axles,  the  equality  or  otherwise,  in  length  of  the  two 
axles,  all  affect  the  result. 

The  subject  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : — 
To  obtain  the  least  draught  we  must  have  the 
largest  wheel  and  the  smallest  axle  ;  the  axle  must 
be  highly  polished,  well  fitted,  but  not  too  tight,  and 
profusely  oiled  ;  the  axle  must  be  cylindrical  and 
horizontal  ;  and  the  wheel  straight  and  vertical.  On 
a  hard  road  with  a  vertical  wheel,  the  width  of  the 
tire,  within  reasonable  limits,  is  unimportant ;  on 
soft  ground,  a  wide  tire  diminishes  the  drauQfht.  If 
the  wheel  is  dished  and  inclined,  the  increased  width 
increases  the  drauefht  on  a  hard  road.  On  a  hard 
road,  it  is  not  important  that  the  two  axles  should 
have  the  same  length,  but  on  a  bad,  or  soft,  road 
the  draught  is  increased,  if  the  front  wheels  are 
closer  together  than  the  hind  wheels,  because  there 
are  four  new  tracks  to  break  instead  of  two. 

On  good,  hard  roads,  the  draught  increases  with 
the    speed,    as    is    shown    in   the    preceding    tables, 


l66  DRAUGHT  CH.  X 

and  at  much  higher  speeds  than  coaches  attain,  as 
on  railroads,  it  varies  as  follows  : — * 

At    5,        10,        15,       20,       30,         40,        50,       60    miles  per  hour. 
9.  15  ;  9.6  ;    10.  5  ;  1 1.4  ;  14.6  ;    19.0  ;  24.0  ;   31.5  pds  per  long  ton. 

On  hard  roads  that  are  rough,  the  draught  in- 
creases rapidly  with  the  speed,  owing  to  the  shocks 
which  absorb  part  of  the  power,  and  on  such  roads 
suspension  on  springs  diminishes  the  draught,  at 
high  speeds,  by  diminishing  the  shocks. 

Well-laid,  firm,  stone  pavements  give  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  the  resistance  to  rolling  that  is 
given  by  good,  broken-stone  roads.  This  difference 
seems,  at  first  sight,  to  be  too  great ;  but  all  the 
experiments  give  substantially  the  same  result,  and 
show  that  a  solid,  unyielding  road  is  better  than  an 
elastic  one  with  ever  so  smooth  a  surface  ;  this  is 
confirmed  by  the  experience  of  old  coaching  men, 
who  consider  what  they  call  the  soundness  of  a  road 
its  most  important  quality. 

On  a  smooth  surface,  with  a  well-made  vehicle, 
there  is  no  indication  that  the  distance  between  the 
axles  in  any  way  affects  the  draught. 

It  is  a  general  opinion,  however,  that  placing 
the  axles  close  together,  or  making  a  coach  '  short- 
coupled,'  as  it  is  called,  makes  it  run  easier. 

No   doubt   a  very  long-coupled    carriage,    like   a 

*  When  it  is  said  that  the  draught  increases  with  the  speed  in  a 
certain  degree,  only  the  statical  draught  as  indicated  by  a  dyna- 
mometer, is  meant.  The  amount  of  actual  work  expended  is  repre- 
sented by  this  quantity  combined  with  the  distance  passed  over. 


CH.  X  SWINGING    OF    A    COACH  1 67 

landau,  runs  hard,  especially  on  a  soft  road,  because 
the  hind  wheels  do  not  follow  promptly,  and  some- 
times run  partly  sideways  in  lines  different  from  the 
front  wheels  ;  but  within  the  limits  of  variation  of 
distance,  possible  in  a  coach,  this  can  occur  in  only 
such  a  small  decree  that  the  disadvantage  is  more 
than  balanced  by  the  other  advantages  of  a  longer 
coupling. 

A  very  short-coupled  coach  can   never  be  entirely 
safe  at  high   speeds,    especially  if   the   horses    are 
galloping ;    a  short  wheel   base,   overhung  in  front 
by  the  body,  will  cause  the  coach  to  rock  to  and  fro, 
and  especially  to  swing  sideways.     A  short  base  is 
generally  obtained  by  putting  the  front  wheels  far 
under  the  front    boot, 
and   the  effect  of   this 
projection  of  the  front 
of  the  coach  beyond  the 
perch-bolt  can   be   ap- 
preciated by  imagining  '       i-i       ]    '         u    — J 
the  front  axle   pushed  IG"  75' 
back  nearly  as  far  as  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  the 
coach  pulled  from  that  point.     It  will  be  seen  that  a 
slight  side  motion  of  the  front  wheels  will  be  greatly 
magnified  at  the  front  end  of  the  coach,   and  will 
cause  a  dangerous  swing  (Fig.  75). 

The  distance  between  the  axles  of  a  coach  should 
not  be  less  than  6  ft.  6  in. 

A  third  element  of  resistance  to  the  motion  of  a 
vehicle,  is  the  action  of  gravity  when  ascending  a 


1 68 


EFFECT    OF    GRADES 


CH.   X 


slope,  where  a  portion  of  the  weight  has  to  be  raised 
vertically.  The  proportion  of  the  weight  thus  lifted 
is  directly  as  the  height  of  the  inclined  plane  is  to  its 
horizontal  length,  and  is,  therefore,  easily  computed. 

If  a  road  rises  one  foot  in  every  ten  of  its  length, 
or,  in  other  words,  has  a  grade  of  one  in  ten,  the 
power  of  the  horses  must  be  exerted  to  raise  one- 
tenth  of  the  weiofht  of  the  coach  all  the  time  that 
the  coach  is  ascending  the  slope,  and  this  resistance 
must  be  added  to  that  of  the  rolling-  friction  and  the 
axle  friction. 

On  all  except  very  slight  grades,  this  resistance 
becomes  important,  as  the  accompanying  table 
shows. 


Grade. 

Percental 

es  of  Resistance  from 

Rollini; 
Friction. 

Axle 
Friction. 

Effect 
of  Grade. 

Total. 

Level 

88 

12 

m     , 

IOO 

I  in 

200  or    0.5  per  cent. 

69 

IO 

21 

IOO 

I  in 

100  or     1.0  per  cent. 

57 

9 

34 

IOO 

I  in 

90  or     1.1  per  cent. 

55 

8 

37 

IOO 

I  in 

80  or    1.3  per  cent. 

53 

8 

39 

IOO 

I  in 

70  or     1.4  per  cent. 

49 

8 

43 

IOO 

I  in 

60  or     1.7  per  cent. 

46 

7 

47 

IOO 

I  in 

50  or    2.0  per  cent. 

42 

7 

52 

IOO 

I  in 

40  or    .2. 5  per  cent. 

3§ 

6 

56 

IOO 

I  in 

35  or    2.8  per  cent. 

35 

5 

60 

IOO 

I  in 

30  or    ^.^  per  cent. 

32 

5 

63 

IOO 

I  in 

25  or    4.0  per  cent. 

28 

4 

68 

IOO 

I  in 

20  or    5.0  per  cent. 

24 

3 

73 

IOO 

I  in 

15  or    6.6  per  cent. 

20 

3 

77 

IOO 

I  in 

10  or  1 0.0  per  cent. 

H 

2 

84 

IOO 

I  in 

8  or  12.5  per  cent. 

11 

2 

87 

IOO 

I  in 

6  or  16.6  per  cent. 

9 

1 

90 

IOO 

CH.  X  EFFECT    OF    GRADES  I  69 

These  figures  are  for  a  heavy  four-wheeled  vehi- 
cle, on  hard  macadam  (Morin,  pp.  45  and  127). 
As  the  grade  increases,  its  importance  in  using  up 
the  power  is  manifest,  until  at  a  grade  of  1  in  55  the 
percentages  of  rolling  resistance  and  grade  resist- 
ance are  equal,  and  at  1  in  45  the  grade  resistance 
is  one-half  of  the  whole.  At  1  in  20,  which  may 
be  considered  a  permissible  grade  on  a  mountain 
road,  the  grade  resistance  is  nearly  three-quarters 
of  the  whole,  and  at  1  in  10,  which  should  be  the 
utmost  limit  of  mountain  roads,  it  is  84  per  cent. 

Grades  of  1  in  8,  to  1  in  6,  now  and  then  met  with, 
can  be  ascended  with  an  ordinary  load  only  by  the 
use  of  extra  horses. 

Macneill,  in  1838,  recommended  1  in  40  as  the 
maximum  grade  on  a  main  road  of  the  best  class, 
but  on  a  large  proportion  of  the  great  European 
roads,  in  mountainous  countries,  1  in  25  is  constantly 
used,  and  there  are  grades  of  that  steepness  on  the 
great  Holyhead  coach  road  in  England  and  Wales. 
In  all  these  cases,  the  surface  is  nearly  perfect. 

A  grade  of  1  in  20  is  the  steepest  up  which  a 
fresh  team,  with  a  moderately  loaded  coach,  should 
trot,  and  then  only  when  the  distance  is  short,  not 
more  than  300  yards. 

All  experiments  agree  in  putting  the  resistance 
to  rolling,  on  a  well-paved  stone  street,  at  about  two- 
thirds  of  that  on  a  good,  macadam-surfaced  road, 
and  every  attentive  coachman  will  feel  the  difference 
in  the  action  of  the  horses  and  the  movement  of  the 


I70  TELFORD    AND    MACADAM  CH.  X 

coach  when  he  runs  off  of  any  other  kind  of  a  road 
on  to  the  stones. 

Of  course,  a  paved  road  to  be  good  must  be  made 
of  flat-topped  stones,  and  the  joints  must  be  so 
small,  that  the  wheels  cannot  drop  into  them  in  cross- 
ing them.  In  many  old  pavements  the  stones  are 
so  rounded  and  worn,  that  they  are  excessively  dis- 
agreeable to  drive  over,  even  while  their  resistance  to 
traction  may  be  less  than  that  of  smooth  macadam. 

The  goodness  of  a  road  depends  not  only  upon 
its  smooth  upper  surface,  but  also  upon  its  solidity,  or 
what  coachmen  often  call  its  soundness.  In  England, 
about  1830,  which  was  the  height  of  the  coaching 
era,  just  before  railroads  came  into  use,  there  was  a 
great  controversy  between  the  advocates  of  the  two 
systems  known  as  Telford's  and  MacAdam's.* 

Mac  Adam  held  that  a  sufficient  layer,  that  is 
from  8  to  12  inches,  of  stone  broken  to  a  size  to 
pass  through  a  two-inch  ring,  laid  on  even  a  yield- 
ing foundation,  made  the  best  road  ;  Telford  in- 
sisted that  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  strong  stone 
foundation  under  the  broken  stone. 

Telford's  view  is  now  generally  adopted  in 
Europe,  especially  for  wet  climates,  but  in  America 
it  is  an  open  question  which  system  is  the  better. 


*  As  the  name  MacAdam  lends  itself  readily  to  being  made  into 
a  verb,  macadamised  has  become  a  well-known  expression  and  has 
taken  its  place  in  English  as  the  designation  of  a  road  surface  formed 
of  broken  stone  without  reference  to  what  is  underneath  it.  The 
French  use  en  empierrement  and  also  macadamisee. 


CH.  X  TELFORD    AND    MACADAM  I  7  I 

European  road  makers,  particularly  in  England, 
insist  that  everything  must  be  done  to  keep  roads 
dry,  and  object  even  to  trees  which  may  shade 
them  ;  but  in  America  the  summer  dryness  is  an 
enemy  to  the  stability  of  a  road,  since  it  permits 
movement  of  the  pieces  of  stone,  and  thereby  facili- 
tates the  disintegration  of  the  road  under  the  traffic, 
and  the  working  up  of  the  large  stones  from  below. 
In  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  the  freezing  and  thaw- 
ino-  of  the  water  in  a  road  disturb  the  connection 
between  the  stones  and  break  up  the  road,  allowing 
ruts  to  be  formed  ;  and  the  Telford  system  undoubt- 
edly provides  the  best  drainage. 

If  cost  is  disregarded,  a  good,  deep  Telford  road 
is  the  best,  although,  perhaps,  the  top  covering 
of  stone  wears  out  more  rapidly  than  that  of  a 
macadam  road,  from  its  being  hammered  between 
the  wheels  and  the  unyielding  pavement  beneath. 
As  soon  as  the  top  is  so  worn  down  as  to  be  not 
more  than  four  inches  thick,  the  stones  of  the  foun- 
dation are  likely  to  work  loose  and  to  come  to  the 
surface,  with  the  result  of  making  the  worst  kind  of 
a  road.  If  the  lower  pavement  is  made  of  stones 
merely  gathered  from  the  fields  and  thrown  in  with- 
out being  packed,  these  stones  will  inevitably  work 
up  through  the  small  stone  and  make  a  road  worse 
than  poor  macadam. 

One  of  the  most  experienced  road  makers  of 
eastern  Pennsylvania  is  decidedly  in  favour  of  mac- 
adam, as   giving  the   better  practical   results  in  all 


172  TELFORD  CH.   X 

regards,  and  especially  as  being  the  more  easily 
repaired,  acknowledging,  however,  that  it  is  more 
likely  than  the  Telford  road  to  become  rutted  when 
the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground. 

For  a  Telford  road  of  the  best  quality,  the  bed, 
formed  12  to  16  inches  below  the  intended  surface 
of  the  finished  road,  should  be  carefully  graded  with 
a  slope  from  the  centre  toward  the  sides,  and 
thoroughly  drained  by  tile,  shallow  broken  stone, 
or  gravel  drains.  No  road  of  any  system  can  be 
good  or  lasting  unless  it  is  thoroughly  drained  ; 
this  is  absolutely  essential.  Upon  the  bed  thus  pre- 
pared, a  paving  of  one  layer  of  stones,  from  7  to 
10  inches  deep,  is  laid  by  hand.  Each  stone  must 
be  laid  with  its  widest  face  on  the  bed,  the  object 
being  to  prevent  the  stones  from  being  pressed  into 
the  ground,  and  to  distribute  the  pressure  from 
passing  wheels  over  as  large  a  surface  as  possible. 


Fig.  76. 

Since  the  stones  should  touch  each  other  where 
they  rest  on  the  ground,  the  upper  surface  will  be 
broken  by  irregular  openings  which  must  be  packed 
tightly  with  stone  chips.  Upon  this  rough  pave- 
ment, which  may  be  made  of  any  inferior  stone,  not 
too  soft,  is  spread  the  hardest  stone  procurable, 
broken  to  sizes  of  from  1  x/2  to  2  inches,  to  a  depth 
of  from  4  to  8  inches  and  well  rolled  with  a  steam 


CH.  X  TELFORD  I.73 

or  horse  roller.  The  depth  of  both  the  under  pave- 
ment and  the  upper  layer  of  stones  will  vary  be- 
tween the  limits  noted,  accordingly  as  the  road  may 
be  intended  for  light  or  heavy  traffic,  and  according 
to  the  amount  of  money  at  the  disposal  of  the  en- 
gineer. The  more  substantial  the  road,  the  easier 
will  be  the  draught  upon  it,  and  the  less  will  be  the 
expense  for  repairs.  No  earth  should  be  put  upon 
the  surface  of  the  road  ;  it  is  by  the  interlocking  of 
the  clean  angular  stones  under  the  rolling  and  the 
traffic  that  the  road  is  made,  and  earth  prevents 
such  interlocking.  If  a  surface  finish  is  required, 
very  sharp  stone  screenings  should  be  used,  put  on 
after  the  road  has  been  partially  rolled. 

Much  rolling  with  a  light  roller,  or  prolonged 
ramming  with  a  light  rammer,  is  preferable  to 
heavy  rolling  or  ramming,  because  the  object  is 
not  to  break  the  angles  of  the  stones,  but  to  shake 
them  into  interlocking  with  each  other,  an  opera- 
tion not  altogether  unlike  the  felting  of  hair.  Con- 
tinuous light  shaking-  will  turn  the  small  stones 
about  among  each  other  until  they  fit  closely  to- 
gether and  form  a  solid  mass. 

If  a  road  is  equally  good  all  over,  it  ought  to 
wear  down  evenly  under  the  traffic,  and  when  worn 
should  be  repaired  by  putting  on  a  new  layer  of 
stone,  not  less  than  3  inches  thick,  after  the  old  sur- 
face has  been  picked  up,  so  that  the  new  stone  will 
bind  into  it.  On  a  road  that  is  not  well  made,  and 
sometimes  even  on  a  good  road,  uneven  wear  will 


174  TELFORD  CH.  X 

take  place,  and  depressions  be  formed,  which  must 
be  patched  with  new  stone.  These  repairs  require 
great  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  road  foreman, 
and  the  old  surface  of  the  portion  repaired  should 
always  be  picked  up  before  adding  new  stone. 
When  new  stone  is  put  on  in  patches,  it  should 
be  well  wetted  and  rammed. 

The  dust  or  mud  which  is  formed  on  the  surface 
by  the  wearing  action  of  the  wheels  should  be 
frequently  removed  ;  it  does  no  good  to  the  road 
and  is  obviously  objectionable.  The  effect  of  mud 
in  increasing  the  draught  is  shown  in  the  Table  on 
p.  162,  the  resistance  of  thick  mud  being  to  that 
of  a  hard  clean  road  as  84  to  45.  It  seems  almost 
needless  to  add  that  a  soft,  '  woolly'  road,  even  if  it 
is  dry,  gives  a  heavy  draught. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a 
Telford  road,  on  account  of  the  varying  price  of  stone 
and  of  labour,  and  the  difference  of  natural  ground, 
but  the  following  fio-ures  are  from  late  American 
sources.  Paving  8  inches  deep,  $4  per  square  rod  ; 
broken  stone  4  inches  deep,  $2  per  square  rod.  An 
18-foot  road  has  340  square  rods  to  the  mile,  which 
at  $6  per  rod  is  $2040,  and  with  $200  per  mile  for 
grading  and  shaping  the  road  bed,  is  $2240  per 
mile.  This  must  be  considered  a  low  cost ;  cul- 
verts and  ditches  may  add  largely  to  it.  For  the 
same  thickness  of  road  bed,  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  much  difference  between  the  cost  of  Telford 
and  of  macadam,  since  the  cost  of  hand  laying  the 


CH.  X  STONE    PAVEMENT  1 75 

pavement  is  balanced  by  that  of  breaking  all  the 
stone  small. 

Although  country  roads,  paved  with  stone,  or,  as 
in  Holland,  with  brick,  are  common  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe,  they  are  not  used  in  America  ;  but 
for  cities  where  the  traffic  is  heavy,  stone  pave- 
ments, apart  from  their  noisiness,  have  many  good 
qualities.  The  following  extract,  from  a  paper  pre- 
pared by  the  present  writer,  as  a  member  of  a  com- 
mittee of  The  Coaching  Club,  to  be  submitted  to 
the  authorities  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1884, 
describes  a  good  method  of  their  construction  : — 

'  The  proper  conditions  of  a  paved  city  street,  as 
'  indicated  by  the  experience  of  the  engineer  and  of 
'  the  driving  expert,  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

'  The  subsoil  on  which  the  paving  is  to  be  laid,  if 
'  not  naturally  porous,  must  be  thoroughly  drained 
'  to  a  depth  of  at  least  four  feet.  A  sewer,  the 
'  crown  of  which  is  pervious  to  moisture,  will  usu- 
'  ally  effect  this  purpose,  but  there  are  grave  ob- 
jections to  any  leaks  from  or  into  a  sewer,  owing 
'  to  the  danger  of  the  escape  of  noxious  gases  ;  and 
'  some  simple  system  of  special  drainage  similar  to 
'  that  used  in  farming  land  is  preferable. 

1  The  surface  of  the  subsoil  should  be  carefully 
'graded  and  consolidated,  so  as  to  insure  that  no 
'  water  reaching  it  can  stand  in  puddles  upon  it, 
'  or  that  any  portion  can  settle  below  the  grade 
'  originally  given  to  it.  The  best  method  of  consoli- 
'  dation  is  by  the  use  of  a  rather  narrow  steam  roller. 


176  STONE    PAVEMENT  CH.  X 

'  Upon  the  subsoil,  thus  carefully  prepared,  there 
'  should  be  laid  a  base  of  concrete  from  eight  to 
'  fifteen  inches  thick,  depending  upon  the  amount 
'  and  character  of  the  traffic,  and  somewhat  upon 
'  the  quality  of  the  subsoil — a  dry  gravel  or  sand 
'  requiring  less  depth  of  concrete  than  a  clay 
'  soil. 

'  The  upper  surface  of  this  concrete  must  cor- 
'  respond  in  form  to  the  finished  grade  of  the  pave- 
'  ment  to  be  placed  upon  it. 

'  The  pavement  itself  should  be  of  stone  blocks 
'  about  three  inches  wide,  nine  inches  deep,  and 
'  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  inches  Ion  or.  The  width 
'  and  depth  must  be  as  uniform  as  possible  ;  the 
'  lengths  may  vary. 

'  The  blocks  should  be  laid  upon  the  concrete, 
'  over  which  a  light  coat  of  sand,  not  gravel,  should 
'  be  spread  merely  sufficient  to  enable  the  workmen 
'  to  bed  the  stones  evenly.  Less  than  an  inch  of 
'  sand  should  suffice  if  the  stones  are  reasonably 
'  even  and  smooth.  The  blocks  are  set  with  their 
1  longest  dimension  across  the  street,  their  smallest 
'  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  street. 

'After  they  are  set,  a  small  quantity  of  fine  sand 
'  must  be  swept  over  their  surface  with  brooms,  so 
'  as  to  fill  the  joints  about  half  full. 

'The  joints  should  then  be  filled  to  the  top  with 
'  melted  asphalt.  This  must  be  done,  if  possible,  in 
'  dry,  warm  weather,  and  cannot  be  done  when  the 
'  stones  are  wet. 


CH.  X  STONE    PAVEMENT  IJJ 

'  The  stone  selected  must  be  one  which  wears 
'  rough  and  gritty,  and  does  not  polish  and  become 
'  slippery.  The  softer  stone  will  not  wear  so  long 
'  as  the  hard  one,  but  that  must  be  submitted  to. 

'  The  asphalt  serves  three  purposes  :  it  closes  the 
'joints,  and  prevents  any  water  passing  through 
'  the  pavement  to  the  concrete  or  the  subsoil,  which 
1  is  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  a  good  pave- 
'  ment ;  it  prevents  dust  rising  from  the  joints  ;  and 
'  it  fills  the  top  of  the  joint  so  as  to  prevent,  to 
'  some  extent,  the  rounding  of  the  upper  surfaces 
'  of  the  stones  by  the  continued  impact  of  the 
'  wheels,  which  is  the  way  that  the  best  laid  pave- 
'  ment  finally  becomes  rough  and  noisy.  There  is 
'  no  remedy  for  this  other  than  turning  the  stones 
'  upside  down,  or  re-cutting  their  upper  surfaces, 
'  and  using  them  on  streets  admitting  of  a  thinner 
'  pavement. 

'  The  asphalt  diminishes  the  noise  by  preventing 
'  the  wheels  from  striking-  the  edges  of  the  stones 
'  with  as  much  force  as  if  the  joints  were  open,  and 
'  it  can  be  renewed  during  any  hot,  dry  weather  at 
'  a  small  cost.  It  must  be  poured  into  the  joints 
'  neatly  from  a  ladle,  or  equivalent  device. 

'  At  street  intersections,  it  is  best  to  carry  each 
'  line  of  paving  to  a  point  in  the  intersection,  to 
'  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  longitudinal  joints 
'  being  in  the  direction  of  the  traffic. 

'  Continuous  lines  of  joints  in  the  direction  of  the 
'  traffic  are    fatal    to    the    maintenance    of  a    ge>od 

12 


178  STONE    PAVEMENT  CH.  X 

pavement ;  and  for  that  reason  flat  gutter  stones 
should  be  positively  interdicted,  and  the  paving- 
should  be  carried  directly  to  the  curb. 

'  There  is  no  occasion,  in  a  well  laid  pavement, 
for  any  crown  to  the  street  beyond  what  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  the  centre  not  being  lower  than  the 
sides  ;  for  that  reason  no  crown  of  more  than  two 
inches  should  be  permitted  in  any  street  of  sixty 
feet  in  width,  and  less  in  a  narrower  street. 

'  The  excessive  crown  that  most  American  city 
streets  have  makes  them  uncomfortable  to  drive 
upon,  owing  to  the  sliding  of  the  hind  wheels  of 
vehicles  toward  the  ©utter. 

'  In  streets  newly  laid  out  and  paved,  the  curb- 
stones should  have  more  slope  than  is  usually 
given  them.  In  a  five  to  seven-inch  curb,  the 
slope  of  the  face  backward  should  be  at  least 
two  inches,  so  that  wheels  rubbing-  against  them 
may  strike  the  tire  only,  and  not  wear  the  wood 
of  the  rims  of  the  wheels. 

'  The  method  of  construction  advocated  is  prac- 
tically that  of  the  streets  of  Liverpool,  England, 
which  are  now  the  best  in  the  world.  The  con- 
crete base  possesses  the  advantage,  among  others, 
that  in  laying  gas  or  water  pipes  it  can  be  cut 
up  in  blocks,  and  relaid  so  as  to  insure  a  more 
perfect  patching  than  can  be  made  on  a  soft 
substratum. 

'  Any  pavement,   however,  is  very  much   injured 
'  by  taking  up  a  portion  over  a  long  trench,  as  the 


CH.  X  ASPHALT    AND    WOOD  I  79 

'  most  skilful  and  careful  workman  cannot  possibly 
'  replace  the  stones,  even  if  they  are  marked,  so  as 
'to  form  the  orio-inal  continuous  surface.' 

The  asphalt  and  wooden  pavements  now  rapidly 
being  introduced  in  cities,  while  not  better  for 
draught  than  stone,  have  the  great  advantage  of 
diminishing  the  noise.  Both  are  worthless  unless 
they  are  underlaid  by  a  thoroughly  well-made  con- 
crete foundation.  Indeed,  it  cannot  be  too  posi- 
tively asserted  that  the  surface,  whether  it  is  stone, 
wood,  asphalt,  or  macadam,  is  only  a  surface,  and 
that  the  true  road  is  below,  which  if  once  well  made 
and  not  injured  by  excavations,  should  last  indefi- 
nitely. The  surface  can  be  renewed  as  it  wears 
out.  The  wooden  pavement,  known  in  America 
as  the  Nicholson,  and  others  of  its  kind,  were  laid 
on  a  lining  of  thin  elastic  boards  upon  poorly  pre- 
pared foundations  of  earth  or  gravel.  These  pave- 
ments soon  went  to  pieces,  and  gave  a  bad  name  to 
wooden  pavement  of  all  kinds  ;  but  creosoted  wood, 
laid  as  it  should  be,  on  a  perfectly  firm  concrete 
foundation,  makes  the  best  covering  that  has  yet 
been  found,  being  nearly  as  smooth  as  asphalt,  and 
less  slippery.  The  application  to  the  wood,  from 
time  to  time,  of  very  sharp,  finely  broken  stone, 
almost  like  coarse  sand,  which  is  forced  into  the  end 
grain  of  the  wood  by  the  traffic,  gives  the  horses' 
feet  a  better  hold.  A  pavement  must  always  be  a 
compromise :  if  it  is  very  smooth  it  is  slippery. 
Certain  stone   pavements  in   the  streets  of  Rome, 


l8o  SLIPPERINESS  CH.   X 

made  with  a  very  hard  lava,  closely  jointed,  are  per- 
fect for  wheels,  but  extremely  slippery  for  horses.* 

Elaborate  experiments  were  made  in  London  in 
1873,  by  William  Haywood,  Engineer  and  Sur- 
veyor to  the  Commissioners  of  Sewers,  on  the 
slipperiness  of  pavements  ;  they  are  described  in  a 
Report  entitled  :  Accidents  to  Horses  011  Carriage- 
way Pavements.  Many  thousand  passing  vehicles 
were  observed  and  the  falls  of  horses  recorded,  in 
certain  streets  paved  with  different  materials.  The 
observations  showed  that  on  stone  a  horse  falls 
once  in  travelling  132  miles,  on  asphalt,  once  in  191 
miles,  and  on  wood,  once  in  330  miles,  proving  the 
great  advantage  of  wood  as  affording  a  good  foot- 
hold  to  the  horse. 

The  following  results  are  quoted  from  pp.  72,  y^  : — 

'  On  the  average  of  the  whole  fifty  days'  observa- 
1  tions,  the  Granite  was  found  to  be  the  most  slippery, 
'  the  Asphalt  the  next  so,  and  the  Wood  the  least. 

'  Separating  the  accidents  under  three  conditions 
'  of  surface  as  regards  moisture,  it  appears  : 

'  That  Asphalt  was  most  slippery  when  merely 
'  damp,  and  safest  when  dry  ; 

*  Within  the  last  few  years,  the  introduction  of  india-rubber  pads 
in  the  horses'  shoes  have  overcome  this  difficulty  and  it  is  now  (1900) 
a  rare  thing  to  see  a  horse  fall  in  the  streets  of  Rome.  The  pad  is, 
in  effect,  a  shoe  inside  of  the  iron  shoe,  so  much  thicker  that  it 
touches  the  ground  below  the  iron.  It  is  sometimes  open  at  the 
back,  sometimes  closed  and  covering  the  frog.  The  outer  portion 
is  expanded  into  a  thin  web  which  lies  between  the  hoof  and  the 
shoe  ;  the  nails,  passing  through  this  web,  keep  the  pad  in  place. 


CH.  X  ACTION    OF    A    HORSE    IN    DRAUGHT  l8l 

1  That  Granite  was  most  slippery  when  dry,  and 
'  safest  when  wet ; 

'  That  Wood  was  most  slippery  when  damp,  and 
'  safest  when  dry  ; 

1  That  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was 
'  generally  dry,  Granite  was  the  most  slippery,  and 
'  Wood  the  least  slippery  ; 

'  That  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was 
'  damp  in  different  degrees,  Asphalt  was  the  most 
'  slippery,  and  Wood  the  least  slippery  ; 

'  That  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was 
'  wet,  Asphalt  was  the  most  slippery,  and  Granite 
'  the  least  slippery  ; 

'  That  on  the  whole,  Wood  was  less  slippery  than 
'either  Asphalt  or  Granite.' 

There  is  nothing  so  nearly  perfect,  from  a  driving 
point  of  view,  as  a  macadam  surface,  giving  sufficient 
smoothness  without  being  in  the  least  slippery  ;  but 
its  drawbacks  of  dust,  mud,  and  rapid  wear  have 
nearly  banished  it  from  large  cities. 

Action  of  a  Horse  in  Draught. — If  a  man, 
attached  to  a  vehicle,  throws  his  body  into  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  yy,  he  would  fall  forward  were 
he  not  supported  by  the  strain  on  the  line  by  which 
he  pulls.  If  his  inclination  is  slight,  he  will  merely 
put  a  portion  of  his  weight  upon  the  line,  and  the 
remainder  will  be  supported  by  the  ground  through 
his  legs,   but    if  he    increases    his    inclination    suffi- 


182 


ACTION    OF    A    HORSE    IN    DRAUGHT 


CH.  X 


«**. 


ciently,   the  vehicle  will   move  forward  as  soon  as 
the  horizontal  force  acting  on  the  line  is   equal  to 

the  resistance  to  motion  of  the 
vehicle.  When  the  vehicle 
moves  in  obedience  to  this 
strain,  the  man  is  forced,  in 
order  to  avoid  falling,  to  put 
one  foot  in  front  of  the  other 
and  so  successively  to  walk  tor- 
ward.  As  this  strain  upon  the 
line  is  produced  entirely  by  the 
weight  of  the  man,  it  is  evident 
that  the  heavier  he  is  the  more 
he  can  pull.  The  action  of  the  horse  is  exactly 
the  same  (Fig.   78),   though  at  first  sight  it  seems 


Fig.  77. 


Fig.    78. 


complicated  by  the  fact  of  his  having  four  legs  in- 
stead of  two.     As  the  vehicle  moves  in  obedience 


CH.   X  ACTION    OF    A    HORSE    IN    DRAUGHT  1 83 

to  the  impulse  of  his  weight,  he  is  forced  to  support 
himself  by  advancing  a  leg,  and  he  continues  to 
move,  throwing  his  weight  forward. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  man,  the  heavier  the  horse, 
the  more  he  can  pull,  a  fact  well  recognised  by  those 
who  use  horses  for  slow,  heavy  draught.  A  horse 
with  a  man  on  his  back  will  pull  a  heavier  load  than 
without  the  man,  and  the  weight  which  is  sometimes 
hung  on  the  yoke  of  a  pair  of  oxen  produces  the 
same  result ;  the  advantage  in  both  cases,  however, 
is  obtained  at  the  cost  of  additional  strain  upon  the 
legs  and  on  the  general  powers  of  the  animal.  A 
heavy  animal  has  more  weight  of  his  own  to  move 
than  a  light  one,  and  he  must  therefore  be  propor- 
tionately stronger  ;  and  this  becomes  more  impor- 
tant as  the  pace  is  increased,  since  a  speed  may  be 
reached  when  all  the  power  of  the  animal  is  em- 
ployed in  moving  himself  and  nothing  is  left  for 
purposes  of  draught.  In  selection  of  horses  for 
service  this  should  be  duly  taken  into  considera- 
tion ;  for  slow  stages  on  soft  roads,  or  for  starting 
a  coach  on  grass  and  earth,  heavy  wheelers  are  de- 
sirable, but  for  fast  work  on  good,  hard  roads,  light, 
quick,  active  horses  are  the  best.  These  are  im- 
portant points  in  distributing  horses  along  a  road  for 
service  on  different  stages,  and  show  the  judgement, 
good  or  bad,  of  the  person  undertaking  this  duty. 

If  a  horse  weighing  iooo  pounds  throws  himself 
forward  into  such  a  position  (Fig.  79)  that  his 
weight  overhangs   the   points  of   support  4  inches, 


184 


ACTION    OF    A    HORSE    IN    DRAUGHT 


CH.  X 


the  horizontal  force  will  be  equal  to  about  1 1 1 
pounds,  since  the  joints  about  which  the  body  moves 
may  be  considered  as  being  about  36  inches  from 


Fig.  79. 

the  ground,  and  36  is  to  4  as  1000  is  to  1 1 1,  so  that 
a  moderate  inclination  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  con- 
siderable effect  of  draught. * 


*  This  proportion  is  determined  by  what  is  known  in  mechanics  as 

the  parallelogram  of  forces.  The  weight 
at  I),  supported  by  a  rigid  strut,  DB,  will 
tend  to  move  in  a  circle  of  which  B  is  the 
centre,  unless  prevented  by  a  resistance 
acting  in  the  line  DC,  and  its  effect  will 
be  represented  in  direction  and  amount  by 
the  lines  DB  and  DC,  DA  representing  the 
weight. 

The  pressure  on  the  ground  acting  in 
the  direction  DB  is  greater  than  the  weight 
itself,  and  it  would  appear,  therefore,  that 
some  force  is  in  this  way  made  out  of  nothing,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  mechanical  work  is  the  result  of  pressure  multiplied  by  the 


Fig.  80. 


CH.   X  RIGID    OR    ELASTIC    CONNECTIONS  1 85 

The  relation  of  the  power  of  a  horse  to  the  draught 
of  a  vehicle  is  modified  by  the  condition  of  the 
road,  since  the  exertion  of  moving  his  own  body  is 
much  the  same  to  the  horse,  whether  the  surface  of 
the  road  is  good  or  bad,  provided  it  is  not  slippery 
or  so  loose  and  deep  as  to  yield  excessively  to 
his  feet ;  but  as  the  surface  of  the  road  deterio- 
rates, more  power  is  required  to  pull  the  same 
vehicle. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  a  rigid,  and  an  elastic  connec- 
tion between  the  horse  and  the  vehicle  ;  since  the 
animal's  motion  forward  is  not  uniform,  but,  as 
shown  by  the  experiments  of  Marey  and  others, 
consists  of  a  series  of  motions  of  varying  velocity, 
a  number  of  shocks  must  occur  with  a  rigid  con- 
nection which  are  avoided  by  a  certain  amount  of 
elasticity. 

As  has  been  remarked,  when  speaking  of  carriages 
with  and  without  perches,  the  springs  to  some  extent 
take  up  such  shocks,  and  a  number  of  devices  are  in 
use,  such  as  the  spring  swingle-tree  of  a  brougham, 
or  a  dog-cart  and  the  spiral  springs  connected  with 
the  traces  sometimes  used  with  heavy  business- 
vehicles.      With    a    spring    interposed,    a    forward 

distance  through  which  it  acts  and  not  by  the  amount  of  the  pressure 
alone. 

As  the  load  becomes  greater  and  the  inclination  of  the  legs  of  the 
horse  must  be  increased  to  move  it,  the  strain  on  them  will  be  in- 
creased to  their  injury. 


1 86  RIGID    OR    ELASTIC    CONNECTIONS  CH.  X 

movement  of  the  horse,  more  or  less  sudden,  in- 
stead of  being"  resisted  by  the  entire  weight  of  the 
carriage,  is  partially  taken  up  by  the  spring  and 
then  gradually  communicated  to  the  vehicle  ;  none 
of  the  force  is  lost. 

The  difference  between  an  elastic  and  a  long- 
connection  must  be  carefully  noted.  If  the  traces 
are  so  long  that  the  horse,  when  commencing  to  pull 
gets  into  motion  before  acting  upon  the  vehicle,  he 
is  brought  up  with  a  jerk  when  the  trace  tightens, 
and  much  of  his  power  is  wasted  to  no  purpose.  A 
slack  connection  by  an  unyielding  trace  is  therefore 
objectionable.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  case  of 
a  horse  pulling  a  canal-boat  by  a  long  rope,  as  the 
sinking  and  rising  of  the  rope  takes  the  place  of 
elasticity,  and  the  force  expended  in  raising  the  rope 
before  the  boat  begins  to  move,  is  restored  by  its 
sinking  ao-ain. 

From  a  purely  physiological  point  of  view,  a  long 
continued  action  by  a  horse,  the  same  in  character 
and  in  amount,  is  undoubtedly  more  fatiguing  than 
when  it  is  varied,  and  the  majority  of  horsemen  have 
observed  that  in  a  given  distance,  on  a  road  with 
some  undulations,  a  horse  is  less  tired  than  on  an 
even  grade,  no  matter  if  that  grade  is  the  minimum 
one  mathematically. 

The  European  roads,  laid  out  by  engineers  with 
the  view  of  having-  the  easiest  grades  attainable, 
nearly  all  have  the  grave  defect  of  long  steady 
slopes  for  surmounting  elevations  with  scarcely  any 


CH.  X 


ATTACHMENT    OF    THE    HORSE 


I87 


resting-places.  American  roads,  otherwise  much 
inferior,  usually  have,  on  the  hills,  places  which  are 
level  or  of  slight  grade,  anc{  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  is  much  better  for  the  horses,  to  have  steeper 
grades  alternating  with  flatter  ones  than  to  have  a 
minimum  average  grade  for  the  whole  of  a  long  dis- 
tance.  An  objection  sometimes  made  to  such  a  plan 
is,  that  if  horses  are  stopped  on  a  hill  they  are  some- 
times disinclined  to  start  again,  but  often  they  have 
to  be  rested  on  the  regular  grade,  and  are  then  much 
more  likely  to  refuse  than  if  they  have  a  short  level 
on  which  to  start. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  increase  of  grade,  which 
is  the  result  of  a  location  with  short  flats,  is  not 
great.  With  a  steady  grade  of  1  in  25,  the  rise  is 
2 1 1  feet  in  a  mile  ;  if  at  every  half-mile,  a  level  of 
200  feet  long  is  made,  the  grade  of  the  remaining 
portion  will  be  1  in  23  instead  of  1  in  25.  With  a 
regular  grade  of  1  in  40,  the  rise 
in  a  mile  is  132  feet;  a  level  place 
of  400  feet  in  each  mile  will  in- 
crease   the    remaining    grade    to    1 


in 


7- 


Fig.  81. 


Attachment  of  the  Horse. — 
There  are  two  ways  in  general  use 
of  attaching  a  horse  to  the  traces 
by  which  he  draws  the  vehicle.  One  is  by  the 
breast  collar  (Fig.  81),  or  Dutch  collar,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,   which  was  in  almost   universal  use 


i88 


ATTACHMENT    OF   THE    HORSE 


CH.  X 


on  the  Continent  until  of  late  years  ;  it  is  still  fre- 
quently seen  there,  and  in  America  is  used  in  some 
light  trotting  harness.  It  has  the  advantages  of 
being  simple,  light,  and  cool  in  hot  weather,  and, 
with  slight  adjustment,  of  fitting  any  horse. 

Its  disadvantages  are  that  with  a  stiff  splinter-bar 
it  rubs  the  shoulders  as  they  move  backward  and 
forward  within  it,  and,  bearing  upon  the  point  at 
which  the  shoulder-blade  joins  the  upper  bone  of  the 
leg   (Fig.   82)   cripples   the  action   of  the  joint.     It 

does  not  enable  the  horse  to 
hold  back  effectively  without  the 
addition  of  a  somewhat  compli- 
cated strapping,  or  a  metal  yoke. 
It  may  be  necessary  in  travelling 
to  use  one  for  a  time  to  relieve 
a  horse  with  a  sore  neck,  but 
moveable  swingle-trees  of  some 
kind  must  be  used  with  it,  or  else 
a  galled  shoulder  is  sure  to  result. 
The  other  way,  is  to  use  the  ordinary  collar  (Fig. 
83),  a  part  of  the  harness  which  requires  the  great- 
est care  and  consideration,  sometimes  taxing  the 
ingenuity  of  the  most  experienced  horsemen  and 
harness-makers.  It  must  fit  ;  if  it  is  too  long  or  too 
wide  it  will  slip  about  and  rub  the  skin  ;  if  it  is  too 
short  it  will  choke  the  horse  ;  if  it  is  too  narrow  it 
will  pinch  and  gall  him.  These  questions  will  be 
treated  more  in  detail  in  the  Chapter  on  Harness. 
But  in  this  place  it  is  proper  to  call  attention  to  what 


Fig.  82. 


CH.  X 


ANGLE    OF    TRACE 


189 


Major  Dwyer  *  has  so  pertinently  pointed  out,  that 
the  attachment  of  the  trace  must  be  at  that  part  of 
the  collar  which  has  the  least  motion  when  the 
horse,  in  action,  works  his  shoulder. 

If  the  tue  to  which  the  trace  is  attached  is  too 
low  down,  the  collar  will  act  somewhat  like  a  breast- 
strap,  the  bearing  will  be  against  the  moving  joint, 
and  the  collar  will  stand  forward  at  the  top,  away 
from  contact  with  the  horse's  neck. 

If  the  tug  is  too  high,  the  bearing  will  be  on  the 
thin  part  of  the  neck,  where  it  will  act  obliquely 
against  the  skin  instead  of  resting  on  the  part  which 
is  of  such  a  form  as  to  oive  a  sort  of  seat  for  the 
collar.  Being  too  high  is  a 
less  serious  fault  than  being 
too  low,  but  it  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  point 
(Fig.  S3),  where  the  scat  for 
the  collar  exists,  and  where 
the  rocking-  motion  of  the 
shoulder-blade  is  the  least. 

A      great     deal     has      been  Fig.  83. 

written  about  the  angle  of  the 

trace,  and  the  experiments  of  Morin,  and  others, 
indicate  12  degrees  to  the  horizontal  as  being  the 
most  effective.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  with  the  usual 
point  of  attachment  to  the  collar,  with  an  average 


*  Major    Franxis     Dwyer,     Scats    and    Saddles.       Chapter    on 
Draught,  Am.  Ed.  n.d.,  part  iii. 


I90  ANGLE    OF    TRACE  CH.   X 

horse,  and  with  the  usual  height  of  splinter-bar,  2 
ft.  7  in.,  the  angle  of  the  trace  of  a  coach  is  about 
16  degrees,  and  therefore  somewhat  exceeds  the 
theoretical  angle.  The  direction  of  the  trace  con- 
tinued falls  above  the  front  axle  and  below  the  hind 
axle  in  the  way  which  is  shown  by  Philipson 
[Draught,  p.  18)  to  give  the  best  results.  It  is 
obvious  from  an  inspection  of  Fig.  j$  (showing  the 
manner  in  which  a  wheel  is  drawn  over  an  ob- 
stacle), that  a  downward  direction  of  the  trace  from 
the  vehicle  to  the  collar  would  be  wasteful  of  power, 
and  that  a  moderate  upward  inclination,  tending  to 
lilt  the  load  somewhat,  is  better. 

Dwyer  has  pointed  out  that  the  direction  of  the 
trace  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  perpendicular 
to  the  collar,  but  no  shoulder  is  straight  enough  to 
bring  a  trace,  with  an  angle  of  1 2  degrees,  at  right 
angles  with  the  collar.  On  a  well-made  horse,  the 
collar  will  have  an  inclination  of  about  36  degrees  to 
the  vertical,  and  a  trace  with  an  inclination  of  1 2 
degrees  to  the  horizontal  will  not  come  within  24 
degrees  of  beino-  at  rioht  anodes  to  the  collar,  or 
within  an  anode  of  16  within  20  degrees.  On  a  horse 
with  a  very  sloping  shoulder,  the  collar  will  be  even 
less  upright,  and  the  strain  on  the  trace  will  pull 
the  collar  up,  on  the  neck,  choking  the  animal  and 
chafino-  the  skin.  The  correction  for  this  is,  ob- 
viously  to  have  the  splinter-bar  low,  and  to  put  the 
draught-eye  of  the  harness  high. 

Close    observation    of    passing    horses    will    fre- 


CH.  X  LENGTH    OF    TRACE  1 9 1 

quently  disclose  exaggerated  cases  of  this  mistake  ; 
a  small  horse  with  a  sloping  shoulder,  attached  to  a 
carriage  with  a  hio-h  bar  or  swindle-tree,  and  with  the 
tug  low,  will  have  his  collar  pulled  into  an  absurd 
position. 

In  Fig.  83,  the  angle  of  the  collar  is  36  degrees 
to  the  vertical,  and  that  of  the  trace  12  degrees 
to  the  horizontal ;  in  Plate  XXXI.  these  angles 
are  36  and  16  respectively. 

In  a  trotting-wagon  the  swingle-trees  are  usually 
very  high,  in  order  to  give  the  horses  ample  room 
for  the  action  of  their  hind  legs  ;  this  brings  the 
traces  nearly  horizontal,  but  the  draught  is  so  light 
that  the  inaccuracy  is  not  important. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  among  coaching  men  that 
there  is  a  great  advantage  in  having-  the  horse  close 
to  Ids  work,  that  is,  in  having  a  very  short  trace. 
But  this  must  be  taken  with  some  allowance.  There 
is  no  absolute  mechanical  advantage  in  a  short  trace. 
A  vehicle  drawn  along  a  surface  by  a  horizontal 
cord  and  a  weight,  passing  over  a  pulley,  will  re- 
quire exactly  the  same  weight  to  move  it,  be  the 
cord  long  or  short  ;  variations  in  the  effect  can  come 
only  from  the  action  of  the  animal. 

It  is,  of  course,  important  that  the  motion  of  the 
vehicle  should  be  as  uniform  as  possible,  and  that, 
once  set  going,  it  should  continue  to  move  at  the 
same  speed,  so  that  small  obstacles  can  be  sur- 
mounted or  crushed  by  the  instant  action  of  the 
horse,  before  the  carriage  has  time  to  stop  and  to 


I92  LENGTH    OF    TRACE  CH.   X 

require  to  be  set  in  motion  again.  With  very  long 
traces  this  objectionable  stoppage  may  take  place, 
which  is  no  doubt  the  foundation  for  the  wide-spread 
belief  in  the  advantage  of  putting  a  horse  close 
to  his  work.  Undoubtedly,  on  smooth  roads  the 
horses  may  be  harnessed  as  close  to  the  coach  as 
will  permit  them  to  trot  fast  without  the  danger  of 
being  touched  by  the  splinter-bar  or  of  striking 
the  wheels  with  their  feet ;  this  means  tight  pole- 
chains  to  prevent  the  horses  from  getting  back  too 
far.  But  on  uneven  roads,  with  holes  and  ruts,  such 
close  harnessing  will  strain  the  horses  by  subjecting 
them  to  violent  shocks  from  the  irregular  motion  of 
the  coach.  The  custom,  therefore,  in  rough  coun- 
tries, such  as  Western  America,  Africa,  and  Aus- 
tralia, is  to  have  a  long  pole  and  to  harness  the 
horses  loosely  by  long  traces  and  long  pole-chains, 
so  that  while  the  coach  cannot  touch  them,  they  are 
less  affected  by  the  movements  of  the  coach  and  of 
each  other.  In  park  driving  on  smooth  roads,  with 
light  loads,  low  speeds,  and  well-trained  horses,  both 
traces  and  pole-chains  may  be  short ;  but  it  is  a 
common  fault  with  coachmen  to  have  them  too  short 
even  under  these  circumstances  and  to  distress  their 
horses  unnecessarily.  For  higher  speeds,  especially 
galloping,  and  on  less  good  roads,  more  flexibility  is 
required  and  more  length  should  be  given.  A  short- 
harnessed  team  looks  'smarter,'  takes  up  less  room, 
and  is  more  easily  handled  than  a  long  one,  and, 
where  circumstances  permit,  it  is  proper  ;  but  judge- 


CH.   X  LENGTH    OF    TRACE  1  93 

ment  must  be  used  as  to  the  conditions.  The  leaders 
should  have  their  traces  long  enough  only  to  keep 
them  well  but  of  the  way  of  the  bars,  and  a  short 
pole  with  a  crab  the  branches  of  which  are  of  suffi- 
cient length  to  bring  the  pole-chains  into  the  proper 
direction,  will,  by  bringing  the  leaders  well  back,  add 
much  to  the  appearance  of  a  team. 

The  proper  length  for  a  wheel-trace  is  84  inches 
from  the  tue-buckle  to  the  centre  of  the  roller-bolt ; 
for  a  lead-trace,  76  inches  from  the  tug-buckle  to 
the  end  of  the  cock-eye  (pp.  216,  217).  From  the 
tug-buckle  to  the  front  end  of  the  trace,  the  length 
is  1 5  inches,  making  the  whole  length  of  the  wheel- 
trace  99  inches,  and  of  the  lead-trace  91  inches. 


i94 


CH.    XI 


CHAPTER    XI 


HARNESS 

Harness. — The  essential  parts  of  the  harness  are 
the  bridle,  bit,  reins,  collar,  hames,  and  traces.  All 
other  parts  are  accessory,  and  may  be  somewhat 
varied,  and,  in  some  cases,  omitted. 

Bridle. — The  bridle  shown  in  Fig.  84  is  the  usual 
pattern  of  a  coaching  bridle. 

For  a  drag,  the  front  should  be  a  simple  pat- 
tern of  chain  ;  for  a  public- 
coach,  patent  leather,  or 
worsted,  of  the  colours 
of  the  'coach,  plaited 
round  the  leather  front. 
Where  the  front  joins 
the  bridle  there  should 
be  a  plain  metal  boss, 
preferably  flat,  with  initial 
or  crest.  On  a  drag  har- 
ness, these  bosses  should 
be  on  the  inner  side  as 
well  as  on  the  outer  side  ; 
on  a  public-coach  they  are 
on  the  outer  side  only, 
and  serve  to  indicate  the  off  side  or  near  side  bridle. 
Ribbons  or  rosettes  are  out  of  place  ;  they  belong  to 


CH.  XI  BRIDLE  1 95 

a  lady's  harness  ;  but  flowers  are  correct  at  all  times, 
and  should  customarily  be  worn.  On  a  public- 
coach,  only  flowers  in  season  should  be  used  ;  they 
are  supposed  to  be  given  by  the  fair  friends  of  the 
coachman,  along  the  road.  In  winter,  holly  berries 
and  leaves  are  suitable.  On  a  drag,  any  kind  of 
flowers  may  be  worn,  and  frequently  the  owner 
adopts  an  especial  flower  from  which  he  never  varies. 
It  is  well  to  have  it  correspond  to  one  of  the  colours 
of  the  coach.  Of  course,  artificial  flowers  must  be 
used  ;  natural  ones  are  too  fragile.  The  wire  stems 
should  be  pulled  through  the  loop  below  the  buckle 
which  is  at  the  top  of  the  winker.  They  are  worn 
only  on  the  outer  side  of  the  bridle.  In  Fig.  84, 
the  flower  is  shown  as  being  put  in  the  throat-latch 
buckle  because  the  rein-ring  is  high  and  close  to  the 
boss  ;  if  the  ring  is  on  the  throat-latch,  the  flower 
should  be  in  the  cheek-piece  buckle  so  as  not  to  be 
rubbed  by  the  rein. 

On  occasions  of  ceremony,  such  as  Meets,  it  is 
usual  for  the  owner  and  the  grooms  to  wear  bou- 
tonnieres  of  the  same  flowers  as  those  on  the  horses' 
heads,  and  on  the  road,  the  person  driving  may 
do  the  same.  There  is  one  occasion  when  ribbons 
may  be  used  :  on  the  last  day  of  the  season  of  a 
public-coach,  on  the  last  stage  into  town,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  put  on  the  horses'  heads  knots  of  ribbon 
of  the  coach  colours,  and  on  the  pads,  similar  knots, 
with  long  ends. 

Winkers  should  be  square,  with  rounded  corners  ; 


I96  WINKERS 


CH.   XI 


round  winkers,  with  or  without  metal  edges,  belong 
to  dress  harness.  They  should  be  much  hollowed  or 
cupped,  so  as  to  stand  away  from  the  eye.  Winkers 
are  unquestionably  necessary  in  driving-harness  ;  a 
saddle-horse  is  ridden  without  winkers,  but  the  rider 
is  on  the  back  of  the  animal,  where  he  has  good 
control  over  him  ;  driving-horses  have  the  coachman 
and  the  whip  behind  them,  and  without  winkers 
they  will  be  nervously  watchful  of  whatever  hap- 
pens there. 

Were  all  horses  driven  from  the  first,  without 
winkers,  they  would  probably  work  well  enough  ; 
but,  in  using  horses  which  have  been  broken  to 
harness  with  winkers,  it  is  dangerous  to  omit  them. 
They  should  not  be  close  enough  to  the  eyes  to 
heat  them,  but  they  should  be  high  enough  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  seeing  backward  over  them. 
The  split  strap  connecting  the  winkers  with  the 
crown-piece,  should  be  exactly  of  the  right  length 
to  make  the  winkers  set  properly,  neither  too  close 
to  the  eyes,  nor  spread  apart.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  in  the  harness-room,  the  bridle  is  not  hung  on 
a  sino-le  hook,  since  this  hook  must  come  on  one 
side  or  the  other  of  the  buckle  of  the  crown-piece, 
and  the  bridle  will  get  a  crooked  set,  and  not  fit 
squarely  on  the  head.  Attention  to  details  like 
these  makes  the  difference  between  a  well  turned- 
out  team  and  a  slovenly  one.  The  centre  of  the 
winker  is  a  proper  place  for  any  crest,  monogram,  or 
device  that  may  be  used.     In  drag-harness,  there  is 


CH.   XI  BRIDLE  1 97 

a  face-drop  which  goes  under  the  front,  and  usually 
has  the  monogram  on  it.  This  is  entirely  ornamental 
and  is  omitted  in  public-coach  harness.  On  one 
side,  the  nose-band  has  a  loop  which  goes  on  the 
billet  of  the  side  of  the  bridle  to  keep  the  nose- 
band from  slipping  round,  and  on  the  other  side,  it 
passes  between  the  side  of  the  bridle  and  the  billet, 
so  that  it  can  be  tightened  by  the  buckle  which  is 
under  the  chin.  Ordinarily,  the  nose-band  is  more 
an  ornament  than  anything  else,  but,  with  a  high-port 
bit  on  a  pulling  horse,  it  may  be  buckled  somewhat 
tight  to  prevent  the  horse  from  opening  his  mouth 
too  wide,  and  thereby  escaping  the  action  of  the 
bit  ;  then,  it  is  useful.  When  a  side-rein  is  used  to 
hold  back  a  pulling  horse,  it  may  be  buckled  to  the 
nose-band,  which  then  acts  as  a  cavesson. 

In  the  wheel-horse's  bridle,  the  ring  through 
which  the  leader's  rein  runs,  is  fastened  on  in 
several  ways.  In  Fig.  84  it  is  shown  as  brazed 
to  a  flat  loop  or  band,  which  slips  on  to  the  crown- 
piece,  and  is  kept  in  its  place  by  the  buckles  below 
it.  This  brings  the  ring  close  under  the  boss  and 
above  the  flower.  It  can  be  readily  taken  off  when 
the  bridle  is  used  in  a  pair-harness. 

Another  way  is  to  have  the  ring  sewed  on  the 
throat-latch  under  its  buckle,  as  is  done  in  public- 
coach  harness,  as  in  Fig.  85  ;  it  is  then  further  below 
the  boss,  and  the  flower  may  be  put  through  the 
buckle  over  it.  Thus  arranged,  the  rein  comes 
straighter   to   the   pad-terret,    but    it    rubs    the    sur- 


198 


THROAT-LATCH    RING 


CH.   XI 


face  of  the  winker.  The  throat-latch  in  this  case 
should  not  be  a  part  of  the  crown-piece,  as  is  usual 
in  pair-horse  harness,  but  should  be  separate,  with 
a  buckle  at  each  end,  so  that  it  can  be  removed 
and  a  plain  throat-latch  without  a  ring,  substituted 

when  desired.  When  using 
four-in-hand  harness  for  pair- 
horse  work,  it  is  in  better 
taste  to  remove  the  parts 
which  are  only  necessary  for 
four  horses.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  the  harness  so  made 
that  it  can  be  used  for  either 
purpose,  and  it  keeps  in 
much  better  order  when  in  constant  use,  and  is  fre- 
quently cleaned  and  oiled,  than  when  hung  up  and 
allowed  to  become  dry.  Two  sets  of  four-in-hand 
harness,  thus  arranged,  will  serve  the  requirements 
of  a  large  private  stable  for  pair-horse  work,  and  will 
make  it  possible  to  turn  out  two  teams  for  a  change 
of  horses. 

Carrying  the  lead-reins  over  the  heads  of  the 
wheelers  has  now  gone  out  of  fashion  ;  twenty-five 
years  ago  it  was  almost  universal  for  drags,  but  be- 
fore that  time  it  was  being  gradually  abandoned  on 
public-coaches.  * 


Fig.  85. 


*  In  a  print,  after  W.  J.  Shaver,  published  in  1841,  of  the  Duke 
of  Beaufort's  public-coach,  the  lead-reins  are  through  the  throat- 
latch  rings.  This  is  the  earliest  print  in  which  that  arrangement  is 
shown,  that  has  come  under  my  notice. 


CH.   XI  HEAD-TERRET  1 99 

'Nimrod,'  in  1834,  comments  upon  the  fashion  as 
follows  (Northern  Tour,  p.  31)  : — 

1  It  was  now  I  found  that  I  had  taken  leave  of 
1  coaching  in  anything  like  its  proper  form,  at  least, 
'  for  some  time  to  come  ;  for  the  horses  were  slow, 
'  the  coachman  slower,  and  the  stupid,  unworkman- 
'  like,  unsafe  practice  of  running  the  leader's  reins 
'  throuoh  the  throat-latches  instead  of  the  head-ter- 
'  rets  of  the  wheel  horses  was  the  order  of  the  day  ;' 
and  again  (p.  340),  '  Such  a  thing  as  a  leader's  rein 
1  running  through  a  wheeler's  throat-latch,  instead 
'  of  throueh  his  head-terret,  is  not  to  be  seen  on  the 
'  Defiance.'  The  objections  to  using  the  head-terret 
are,  that  when  a  wheeler  tosses  his  head,  he  disturbs 
the  lead-rein  more  than  when  it  passes  through  the 
side  ring,  which  is  more  flexible,  and  which  moves 
without  jerking  the  rein  ;  that  the  rein,  when  over- 
head, sometimes  gets  behind  the  horse's  ear,  and 
often  in  wet  weather  gets  the  foretop  hair  tangled 
round  it ;  and  that  it  is  difficult  to  reach  up  so  high 
to  pass  the  rein  when  changing  horses.  When 
a  head-terret  is  used,  it  is 
screwed  into  a  plate  sewed 
into  the  crown  piece,  or, 
more  frequently,  there  is 
a  double  ring  (shown  at 
A,  Fig.  86),  which  to  some  pIG<  g6. 

extent   prevents    the    rein 

from  getting  behind  the  ear.     With  a  single  head- 
terret  the  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  putting 


200  THROAT-LATCH    RING  CH.   XI 

a  loose  ring  between  the  buckle  and  the   loop,   or 
keeper,  in  front  of  the  terret,  as  shown  at  B. 

The  terrets  may  be  kept  on  the  top  of  the  head 
in  a  public-coach  harness,  as  well  as  the  rings  on  the 
throat-latch,  since  leaders  that  throw  their  tails  over 
the  reins,  or  that  are  inclined  to  kick,  will  be  less 
likely  to  do  either,  if  the  rein  is  kept  that  much 
hiorier  ;  but  when  the  terret  is  near  the  boss,  as  in 
Fig.  84,  pretty  much  the  same  end  is  attained. 

In  public-coach  harness  the  ring  is  often  sewed  on 
lower  down  than  is  shown  in  Fig.  85.  In  American  * 
public-coach  harness  these  rings  are  invariably  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  bridle,  since  the  lead-reins  are 
not  passed  through  a  terret  on  the  wheelers'  pad,  and 
from  the  inner  side  go  more  directly  to  the  driver's 
hand  ;  but  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  pass 
the  rein  through,  at  a  change.  Sometimes 
the  lead-rein  is  simply  passed  tlwougli  the 
throat-latch. 

The  strap  with  a  ring  at  the  end  (shown 
in   Fig.  84),  which  is  sewed  on  the  crown- 
Fig.  87.      piece,  is  to  take  the  short  strap  holding  the 
ring  (Fig.  87)   through  which  the  bearing- 
rein  passes,  and,  when  the  bearing-rein  is  not  used, 
the  strap  and  ring  show  very  little. 

The  buckle  which  is  sewed  on  the  cheek-strap  at 
the  top  of  the  winker  should  be  a  little  above  the 

*  When   reference  is  made   to  the   'American'   way,  the   original 
fashion,  as  practised  in  the  West,  is  meant. 


CH.   XI 


BIT 


20I 


edge  of  the  winker,  so  as  to  permit  some  flexibility 
to  the  side  of  the  bridle. 

Bit. — A  great  many  different  bits  are  fancied  by 
horsemen,  but,  for  coaching,  the  patterns  shown  in 
Fig.  88  are  those  most  in  use.     The  Liverpool  bit, 


Fig.  88. 


A,  has  a  straight  mouth-piece,  smooth  on  one  side 
and  slightly  fluted  on  the  other,  which  plays  up  and 
down  on  the  branches  of  the  bit  for  the  distance 
of  about  an  inch.  The  portion  of  the  branch  on 
which  it  moves  should  be  square,  as  well  as  the  hole 
in  the  end  of  the  mouth-piece,  so  that  the  branch 
cannot  turn,  or  else  the  coupling-rein  will  pull  the 
ring  of  the  bit  into  a  position  to  press  against  the 
side  of  the  horse's  mouth  and  hurt  him.  An  objec- 
tion to  having  the  branches  moveable  in  the  mouth- 
piece is  that  they  wear  rapidly  ;  consequently  many 
coaching  men  prefer  to  have  them  fixed.  When 
the  rein  is  buckled  to  the  rinor  or,  as  it  is  called,  '  in 
the  cheek,'  the  bit  acts  like  a  plain  snaffle.     When 


202  BIT  CH.   XI 

it  is  in  one  of  the  holes  in  the  branch,  it  is  said  to 

be    'in    the   upper,    middle,  or  lower  bar,'   and    the 

lower  it  is,  the  more  effect  it  has. 

The  rein  is  sometimes  buckled  round  the  branch 

inside  of  the  ring,  and  below  the  mouth-piece  (Fig. 
89),  when  it  acts,  perhaps,  like  a  mild 
curb  bit ;  but  this  arrangement  pre- 
vents the  play  of  the  mouth-piece  up 
and  down,  and  does  not  have  any 
compensating  advantage.  The  bil- 
let   being    constantly  wetted    by  the 

horse's  mouth  is   soon   rotted.     The 
Fig.  89. 

branches  of  the  bit  may  be  joined 
at  the  lower  ends  by  a  bar,  as  shown  in  B.  This 
bar  prevents  a  horse  from  catching  the  end  of  the 
branch  in  the  bridle  of  his  partner  when  he  tosses 
his  head,  and  such  bits  may  be  used  on  the  lead 
horses.  On  the  wheel  horses,  this  bar  might  be 
caught  in  the  hook  of  the  pole-chain,  and  it  is  there- 
fore better  not  to  use  bar  bits  on  the  wheel  horses. 

Either  style  of  bit  may  be  used  on  all  four  horses, 
but  bits  with  bars  on  the  wheelers,  and  bits  without 
bars  on  the  leaders,  in  the  same  team,  are  decidedly 
wrong. 

To  prevent  a  horse  from  taking  the  branch  of  his 
bit  in  his  lips,  the  elbow  bit,  C,  is  used  ;  the  bend  in 
the  branch  serves  the  same  purpose  as  a  lip  strap  on 
a  riding  bridle.  In  this  bit  the  shank,  if  it  passes 
loosely  through  the  mouth-piece,  must  be  square,  or 
else  the   coupling-rein   will   pull   it  out   of  position. 


CH.   XI 


BIT 


203 


The  Liverpool  bit,  having  straight  branches,  can  be 
used  either  with  the  fluted  side  or  with  the  smooth 
side  of  the  mouth-piece  against  the  horse's  jaw,  but 
the  elbow  bit  obviously  cannot  be  so  used  unless  the 
shank  is  round,  so  that  the  branches  can  be  turned. 
For  this  reason,  the  Liverpool  bit  with  the  straight 
branch  is  the  most  useful  '  all-round'  bit. 

The  Buxton  bit,  D,  is  considered  a  '  dressy'  bit  and 
is  used  on  pair-horse  harness  :  it  is  proper  enough 
on  a  drag  team,  but  not  quite  so  simple  and  work- 
manlike as  the  Liverpool.  The  branch  is  curved  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  catching 
it  with  his  lip. 

A  straight  mouth-piece  is  not 
always  suited  to  a  pulling  horse, 
since  it  rests  upon  the  compara- 
tively insensitive  tongue,  and 
does  not  press  much  upon  the 
bars  of  the  mouth.  Such  a  horse 
requires  a  mouth-piece  with  a  port,  or,  as  the  French 
call  it,  liberty  of  the  tongue,  which  is  an  arch,  as  at 
P,  Fig.  90,  of  greater  or  less  height,  permitting  the 
toneue  to  eo  up  into  it,  and  the  canons,  C  C,  of  the 
mouth-piece  to  rest  upon  the  bars.  When  consider- 
ably exaggerated,  the  port  serves  another  purpose  : 
it  presses  upon  the  roof  of  the  mouth  when  the  rein 
is  drawn,  and,  if  the  nose-band  is  buckled  tight,  it 
presses  very  hard.  This  arrangement  is  one  of  great 
severity,  and  should  be  used  only  by  a  person  of 
judgement,  and  with  a  very  light  hand.     The  action 


Fig.  90. 


204  CURB-CHAIN  CH.  XI 

of  all  these  bits,  when  the  rein  is  buckled  in  one  of 
the  holes  in  the  branch,  depends  upon  the  curb-chain 
which  is  attached  to  the  upper  eye  of  the  bit  and 
passes  under  the  chin.  The  tightness  of  the  chain 
can  be  regulated  by  engaging  one  or  other  of  its 
links  in  the  hooks.  Usually,  before  hooking,  the 
chain  should  be  turned  until  all  the  links  lie  flat  ;  if 
it  is  turned  so  that  the  links  are  open,  or  'roughed,' 
as  it  is  called,  it  is  more  severe.  There  should  be 
a  hook  on  each  side  of  the  bit,  so  that  the  chain  can 
be  entirely  removed  for  cleaning,  and  these  hooks 
should  have  spring  points,  or  the  chain  will  be  con- 
stantly coming  unhooked.  The  chain  should  be  so 
hooked  that  when  the  bit  is  hanging  loose,  with  the 
horse's  head  nearly  vertical,  three  fingers  can  be 
passed  between  the  horse's  jaw  and  the  chain,  which 
will  then  lie  in  what  is  sometimes  called  the  '  chain- 
eroove,'  above  the  cushion-like  thickening  of  the 
lower  lip.  \\  nen  the  rein  is  pulled  tight,  the  head 
of  the  horse  being  vertical,  the  branch  of  the  bit 
should  come  to  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees  with 
the  vertical  ;  if  it  approaches  nearer  to  the  horizon- 
tal, the  chain  is  too  loose  to  have  any  effect.  A 
curb-strap,  with  a  billet  at  each  end  to  buckle  in  the 
eye  of  the  bit,  is  in  many  respects  more  convenient 
than  a  chain,  and  no  hooks  are  needed  on  the  bit, 
but  it  is  not  as  severe  as  is  a  chain. 

Since  the  function  of  the  curb-chain  is  to  provide 
a  fulcrum  on  which  the  branch  of  the  bit  acts 
in    pressing   the    mouth-piece    against    the    bars,    a 


CH.  XI 


SNAFFLE-BIT 


205 


Fig.  91. 


wide  strap  fulfils  this  purpose  without  hurting  the 
chin  ;  for  which  reason  I  have  always  preferred  the 
strap. 

The  action  of  the  chain,  on  a  pulling  horse,  may 
be  much  increased  by  tying  the  centre  of  it  by  a 
piece  of  cord  to  the  throat-latch,  so  as  to  make  it 
bear  higher  up  on  the  jaw,  or  the  chain  may  be 
passed  once  round  the  part  of  the  nose-band  which 
lies  above  it,  with  the  same 
effect. 

Plain  snaffle-bits  (Fig.  91)  are 
rarely  used  on  coach  horses. 
If  one  horse  in  a  team  will  not 
go  pleasantly  with  any  other  bit,  he  must  have 
one  ;  but  it  is  dangerous  to  bit  a  team  all  round 
with  snaffles,  for  if  they  start  suddenly,  it  may  be 
difficult  to  hold  them,  and  an  unnecessary  risk  is 
being  run  ;  a  curb  bit  with  a  light  hand  is  the  proper 
thing. 

The  double-ring,  jointed  snaffle  (Fig.  92)  is  the 
favourite  hansom-harness  bit,  and  in  severity  comes 
between  the  plain  snaffle  and 
the  curb.  The  loose  rings  are 
fastened  to  the  head-stall  of  the 
bridle,  and  the  reins  buckled  to 
the  ordinary  rings  ;  the  pull 
bends  the  bit  at  its  joint,  and  squeezes  the  loose 
rings  together,  making-  the  bit  quite  severe.  The 
action  of  the  various  Bits  will  be  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XV. 


Fig.  9: 


206 


BEARING-REIN 


CH.   XI 


The    Bearing-Rein    is    made   in    the    two    forms 
shown    in    Fig.    93.      The    pulley   bearing-rein,    A, 


Fig.  93. 

requires  a  special  snaffle,  having  a  roller  or  pulley 
attached  to  it.  The  bearing-rein  is  buckled  to  a 
point  or  chape  on  the  crown-piece,  passes  through 
the  pulley  (being  made  round  for  the  purpose),  and 
then  through  the  ring  of  the  gag  runner,  termi- 
nating in  a  ring  to  receive  the  flat  portion  of  the 
rein.  This  flat  portion  is  looped  over  the  centre- 
hook  of  the  pad  (p.  220)  ;  its  length  is  adjusted  by 
the  buckle  shown  at  the  right-hand  side  of  Fig.  93. 


CH.  XI  COLLAR  207 

The  plain  bearing-rein,  B,  is  buckled  to  a  light 
snaffle-bit,  which  is  not  attached  to  the  bridle,  and, 
passing  through  the  ring  which  is  attached  to  the 
crown-piece  by  the  strap  already  described,  it  loops 
the  centre-hook  of  the  pad.  For  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  its  length,  it  has  the  arrangement  of  rings 
and  buckles  shown  in  the  figure.  Form  A  is  much 
more  heavy  and  clumsy  than  form  B,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  see  any  advantage  in  it.  The  double 
purchase  of  the  pulley  enables  a  stableman  to  pull 
the  rein  up  very  tight,  and  to  make  it  cruel.  (See 
Article  on  Bearing-Reins,  Chapter  XII.) 

The  bearing-rein  is  sometimes,  in  America,  called 
the  '  check-rein.' 

Collar. — Inasmuch  as  the  collar  is  that  part  of 
the  harness  by  which  the  horse  does  his  work,  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  of 
the  proper  shape  and  should  fit  well,  and  to  get  a 
collar  which  will  not  rub  the  horse,  usually  ex- 
ercises all  the  care  and  ingenuity  of  the  harness- 
maker  and  the  coachman.  If  possible,  every  horse 
should  have  his  own  collar  ;  with  the  horses  of  a 
public-coach  it  is  indispensable,  for  which  reason 
every  horse  should  have  a  number,  which  is  usually 
branded  on  the  hoof,  and  his  collar  should  have  a 
corresponding  number,  in  brass  figures,  on  the  little 
cape  which  is  usually  on  the  top  of  a  public-coach 
collar,  where  they  can  be  seen  by  the  coachman 
from  the  box. 


208 


COLLAR 


CH.   XI 


Collars  are  either  straight,  that  is,  so  made  that 
when  laid  upon  a  table,  face  down,  they  will  touch 
the  table  at  all  points  (Fig.  94),  or  bent  back  (Fig. 
95).     The  latter  shows  off   the   horse's  neck  much 

better,  giving  it  more  apparent 
lenorth,  and  collars  for  drae-har- 
ness  are  usually  thus  made.  Since 
the  metal  hames  must  fit  the  col- 
lar closely,  they  must  be  also  bent 
back,  and  if  there  is  any  difference 
in  the  degree  of  bending,  they  will 
not  tit.  For  this  reason  public- 
coach  collars  are  usually  made 
straight,  since  any  straight  hames 
will  fit  any  straight  collar,  pro- 
vided there  is  not  too  much  dif- 
Some  coachmen  think  that  straight 
collars  are  less  apt  to  rub  the  neck. 

The  hames  rest  in  the  groove  formed  by  the  roll 
which  makes  the  front  of  the  collar,  and  when  this 
groove  shows  also  on  the  inside,  or  neck  side,  of  the 
collar,  the  collar  is  called  a  'rim  collar.'  Sometimes 
the  groove  does  not  show  on  the  neck  side,  the 
lining-  being  carried  round  smoothly  from  back  to 
front.  Such  collars  are  called  '  Kay  collars,'  from 
the  name  of  the  inventor,  and,  being  neater  looking 
than  rim  collars,  are  well  adapted  to  drag-harness. 
In  drag-harness,  the  outside  of  the  collar  is  always 
made  of  patent  leather  ;  in  public-coach  harness,  it  is 
frequently  of  plain,  black  leather,  and  sometimes  of 


Fig.   94.      Fig.   95 
ference  in  size. 


CH.  XI  COLLAR  20Q 

russet  leather,  which  last  is  rather  '  smart'  looking 
when  it  is  dark  brown.  What  are  called  '  straw  col- 
lars' are  really  made  either  of  split  rattan,  or  of  a 
kind  of  rush  ;  they  have  no  particular  advantages. 

The  lining  against  the  horse's  neck  is  of  soft 
leather,  black  or  russet,  or  sometimes  of  thin  and 
very  smoothly  worked  patent  leather.  The  latter 
has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  kept  perfectly 
clean  by  sponging,  and,  in  warm  weather  especially, 
is,  perhaps,  preferable  to  any  other  lining. 

Cloth,  or  woollen  of  any  kind,  is  not  good,  al- 
though many  heavy  collars  for  carts,  and  the  like, 
are  so  lined  ;  it  absorbs  the  sweat,  and  is  difficult 
to  dry.  A  collar  must  be  so  stuffed  as  to  be  soft 
and  elastic. 

The  shape  of  the  collar  is,  of  course,  of  the  first 
importance  ;  if  it  is  too  wide,  it  will  slip  about  side- 
ways, and  rub  the  shoulders  ;  as  a  rule,  the  width 
that  permits  it  to  go  easily  over  the  horse's  head 
will  be  right  for  the  shoulders.  A  horse  with  a  very 
wide  head  and  thin  neck  requires  a  collar  which  can 
be  opened  at  the  top,  in  order  to  put  it  on,  or  the 
collar  must  have  a  lining  which  can  be  fitted  into 
it  to  reduce  its  width.  This  lining-  should  have  a 
roll  at  each  edge,  to  prevent  it  from  slipping  out  of 
place. 

A  collar  should  be  of  such  a  length  that  the 
four  fingers  of  the  hand,  held  vertically,  can  be 
readily  inserted  between  it  and  the  neck  when  the 
horse  holds  his  head  in  a  natural  position,  or  else 

14 


210 


COLLAR 


CH.  XI 


when  he  lowers  his  head,  the  collar  will  choke  him. 
If  it  is  much  longer  than  this,  it  will  slip  up  and 
backward.  It  is  impossible  to  give  precise  direc- 
tions as  to  the  length  ;  careful  observation  must  de- 
termine it  for  each  horse.  The  proper  form  of  col- 
lar, looking  at  it  in  front,  is  shown  in  Fig.  96.     The 

top  should  be  sharp,  and  not 
rounded,  or  it  will  press  on  the 
withers,  and  make  a  sore  spot  ;  a 
serious  and  common  fault.  To 
guard  against  this  same  fault,  the 
sides,  at  the  points  marked  AA, 
should  be  somewhat  filled  out, 
but  not  enough  to  prevent  a  solid 
bearing  on  the  neck  at  BB,  where 
the  draught  comes.  It  is  usually 
very  difficult  to  make  a  harness- 
maker  appreciate  the  necessity 
of  attending  to  the  filling  at  AA,  or  to  the  pointed 
top. 

A  pipe  collar  is  made  with  a  hollow  about  three 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  deep,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  inside  curve,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  press- 
ure at  that  point  on  the  windpipe. 

The  upper  ends  of  the  rim  are  covered  by  a 
leather  point,  or  cap,  and  there  is  sometimes  a 
little  cape  which  extends  backward  and  covers  the 
place  where  the  collar  is  sewed  together.  On  this 
cape,  is  the  proper  place  for  the  number  of  the 
horse.     In  dress-harness  the  crest  is  put  there,  but 


CH.  XI  HAMES  2 1  I 

not  in  drag-harness.  Sometimes  a  buckle  is  sewed 
on  the  collar  on  each  side,  back  of  the  hames,  and 
eight  or  ten  inches  below  the  top  of  the  collar,  into 
which  a  strap  an  inch  wide,  with  holes  in  each 
end,  called  a  housing-strap,  can  be  buckled  ;  this 
passes  over  the  top  of  the  collar,  from  side  to  side, 
and  over  the  bearing-rein  to  keep  it  from  shaking 
about ;  it  is  now  rarely  used. 

The  collar  is  really  only  a  pad  which  goes  next 
to  the  horse's  neck,  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
hames,  which  are  two  pieces  of  iron,  flat  on  the 
inside  and  round  on  the  outside,  to  which  the 
traces  are  attached.  The  hames  are  sometimes 
covered  with  black  patent  leather,  but  are  usually 
plated  with  silver  or  with  brass,  to  match  the  rest 
of  the  harness  mountings  ;  black  hames  are  rarely 
used  in  coach-harness.  In  drag-harness  they  have 
eyes  at  the  lower  ends,  through  which  passes  the 
kidney-link  (Fig.  97),  to  hold  them  together.  The 
kidney-link,  so  called  from  its  shape, 
is  made  open  at  the  top,  so  that  it 
can  be  taken  off  the  hames  ;  it  is 
better  to  have  this  opening  closed  by 
a  hinged  piece,  also  shown   in   Fig.  97, 

FlP      Q  7 

to  prevent  the  points  of  the  links  from 
chafing  the  collar,  and  from  catching-  on  the  edges 
of  the  martingale.  On  the  kidney-link  is  slipped 
the  ring  through  which  the  pole-chain  is  passed. 
This  ring  should  not  be  left  on  the  link  of  the 
lead-horse   harness,  where    there    is   no   pole-chain, 


2  I  2 


HAMES 


CH.   XI 


£ 


Fig.  98. 


although  it  is   frequently  left   there   by  thoughtless 
coachmen. 

In  public-coach  harness  the  lower  ends  of  the 
names  have  hooks  (Fig.  98)  and 
a  chain  which  joins  them.  If  the 
chain  is  entirely  loose  it  is  easily 
lost,  and  it  is  better,  therefore,  to 
have  it  fast  to  one  side  of  the 
names,  as  is  also  shown  in  Fio\ 
98.  It  is  usually  made  as  shown 
in  the  Figure,  but  it  is  better  to 
have  two  links  between  the  kid- 
ney-link and  the  eye  of  the  names  ; 
the  kidney-link  then  comes  more  nearly  in  the 
centre.  Both  chain  and  link  should  be  very  strong. 
The  purpose  of  a  hook  and  chain  is  that  the  dis- 
tance between  the  ends  of  the  names,  and  conse- 
quently their  spread,  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  collar  ; 
with  the  drag  pattern  this  can  be  done  only  by 
changing  the  link,  and,  for  that  reason,  links  of  two 
or  three  different  lengths  should  be  kept  on  hand  in 
the  harness-room. 

It  is  obvious  that,  with  the  long  link  and  chain, 
the  names  must  be  made  in  pairs,  near  side  and 
off  side,  since  the  link  and  rincr  are  on  the  inner 
side. 

In  heavy  diligence-harness,  the  names  are  of 
wood,  and  to  the  rings  to  which  the  traces  are 
attached,  or  to  others  below  them,  a  leather  strap 
is  buckled,   hanging  quite  slack,   on   the   middle   of 


CH.   XI  DRAUGHT-EYE  213 

which  the  pole-chain  runs  instead  of  being-  fastened 
into  a  kidney-link. 

The  names  are  fastened  together  at  the  top  by 
the  hame-strap,  and  this  must  be  strong  and  fre- 
quently renewed,  since  the  strain  from  the  pole- 
chain  comes  upon  it.  The  hame-strap  must  be  put 
on  with  its  point  turned  toward  the  inner  side — that 
is,  to  the  off  side  on  the  near  horse,  and  the  near 
side  on  the  off  horse  ;  because,  should  a  horse  fall, 
the  quickest  way  to  loosen  his  traces  and  pole-chain, 
and  to  free  him,  is  to  unbuckle  his  hame-strap,  which 
is  much  more  readily  done  when  the  strap  can  be 
pulled  toward  the  operator.  This  is  such  a  simple 
way  of  getting  the  harness  off,  that  it  is  strange 
that  many  experienced  horsemen  forget  it  and  try 
to  pull  the  traces  out  of  the  tug-buckles  without 
success.  The  hame-strap  can  be  cut  in  an  emer- 
gency, with  the  loss  of  only  an  insignificant  part  of 
the  harness,  whereas  cutting  a  trace  means  serious 
damage. 

Draught-eve. — At  a  point  about  two-fifths  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  hame  from  the  bottom,  the 
draught-eye  is  welded  on,  and  to  it  is  attached  the 
trace. 

There  are  several  patterns  of  draught-eye,  but 
those  most  in  use  are  shown  in  Fig.  99  ;  A  is  the 
most  common  ;  B  is  practically  the  same  as  A,  and 
is  really  a  better  design,  since  it  is  fastened  at  two 
points,  and  hence  is  stronger  ;   C  has  the  same  form 


214 


MARTINGALE 


CH.  XI 


as  A,  but  has  in  addition  a  ring-,  to  which  the  tug  is 
sewed,  and  is  generally  used  on  public-coaches, 
while  A  and  B  are   used  in  drag-harness  ;   D,  called 


Fig.  99. 

from  its  shape  the  olive,  is  almost  universal  in  French 
cab-harness,  but  is  rarely  used  in  other  harness, 
although  it  has  the  advantage  that  the  tug  can  be 
readily  detached  by  turning  it  a  quarter  round.  It 
is  not  so  strong  as  any  of  the  other  forms,  C  being 
the  strongest  of  all,  and,  therefore,  very  properly 
adopted  for  public-coach  harness. 

It  is  usual  in  public-coach  harness  to  leave  the 
steel  end  of  the  draught-eye  unplated  ;  the  brass 
plating  is  apt  to  wear  at  that  place  and  look  ragged  ; 
the  ring:  is  also  steel. 

The  draught-eyes  should  be  long  and  should  stand 
out  well,  to  prevent  the  trace  from  chafing  the  collar. 


Martingale. — The  bottom  of  the  collar  is  kept 
from  rising  by  the  martingale,  which  passes  from 
it,  between  the  fore  legs  of  the  horse,  to  the  belly- 
band.  When  a  horse  is  holding  back,  on  a  hill, 
the  pole-chain  pulls  on  the  kidney-link  and  names, 
and  the  martingale  must,  therefore,  pass  round  the 


CH.   XI 


MARTINGALE 


215 


collar    and    inside    of  one    side    of   the  kidney-link, 

binding-  it  and  the  collar  together,   as  in  Fig.    100. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  buckle  the  billet  of  the 

martingale    to    the 

kidney-link  only;  in 

this  case,  should  the 

hame-strap    break, 

or    be     too    loose, 

the  link  and  hames 

may  be    pulled  off 

together,      entirely 

leaving  the  collar. 

Harness-makers 
sometimes  make 
the  martingale  bil- 
let  too  short  to  go 
round  the  collar,  in 
which  case,  a  new 
billet  must  be  put 
on  ;  as  a  temporary  expedient  a  short  strap  should 
be  buckled  round  link  and  collar. 

Another  reason  for  buckling  the  billet  round  the 
collar  is,  that  if  it  is  on  the  link  only,  it  is  swung 
from  side  to  side  by  the  action  of  the  horse,  with  an 
ungraceful  motion,  as  may  be  often  noticed  on  a  pair 
of  horses  approaching  the  observer.  For  the  same 
reason  the  patent-leather  ornament,  which  is  usu- 
ally on  the  martingale,  must  be  firmly  sewed  to  it, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  100,  and  not  attached  by  a  ring. 
Martingales  should  not  be  used  on  the  collars  of  the 


Fig.    too. 


2l6 


TUG 


CH.  XI 


lead-harness,  since  the  leaders  have  no  part  in  hold- 
ing- back  the  coach. 

Near  the  upper  end  of  the  hame  is  a  terret. 
through  which  the  rein  passes.  This  terret  is  usu- 
ally made  with  the  ring-  loose  in  the  foot  which 
attaches  it  to  the  hame. 


Tug. — The    tug   is    a    strapping-  of  leather  (Fig. 
101).     The   clip,   made   of  iron,   is   slipped  into  the 


Fig.    ioi 


front  end  of  the  tug  as  shown  at  A,  and  secured  by 
rivets,  the  heads  of  which  show  ;  or  for  public-coach 
harness,  the  tug  is  sewed  to  the  rino-,  as  shown  at  B. 
The  other  end  of  the  tug  takes  the  buckle  for  the  trace. 


CH.  XI  TRACE  2  17 

The  length  of  the  tug  is  important :  if  it  is  too 
long, — and  harness-makers  are  very  apt  to  make  it 
so, — the  buckle  reaches  back  of  the  pad  and  the 
belly-band  and  looks  very  awkward,  as  is  shown 
in  Plate  XXV.  For  a  fifteen-three  horse  of  good, 
average  shape,  the  length  from  the  head  of  the  clip 
to  the  middle  of  the  buckle,  should  be  20^  inches  ; 
to  the  end  of  the  buckle,  22  inches. 

Trace. — The  wheel-trace  is  made  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  leather,  and  should  have  a  narrow  strip, 
shaved  on  both  edges,  inserted  between  the  two 
thicknesses  to  swell  it  out  in  the  middle,  which  im- 
proves its  appearance,  and  diminishes  its  liability  to 
rub  off  the  hair.  Public-coach  traces  do  not  usually 
have  this  inside  piece. 

The  stitching  of  the  traces  should  be  coarse, — that 
is,  the  stitches  should  be  far  apart,  about  ten  to  the 
inch,  and  made  with  strong  thread  ;  in  fine  stitch- 
ing, the  holes  are  too  close  together  and  cut  the 
leather  unnecessarily.  Public-coach  harness  may  be 
stitched  throughout  more  coarsely  than  drag-harness. 

The  front  end  of  the  trace  is  pierced  by  five  holes, 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  apart,  for  the  tug-buckle. 
The  rear  end  is  fitted  in  several  different  fashions  : 
for  a  drag  it  has  a  running  loop  (Fig.  102,  A),  which 
is  put  on  the  roller-bolt  with  the  loose  end  on  the 
outer  side  ;  for  a  public-coach,  what  is  called  the 
French  loop  (B)  is  generally  used  ;  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  simplicity,  and,  if  the  loop  of  the  inside 


218 


TRACE 


CH.  XI 


trace  is  made  somewhat  small,  it  will  be  impossible 
to  get  it  on  over  the  step  iron,  which  is  on  top  of 
the  outside  roller-bolt,  and  there  will  be  no  danger, 
therefore,   of  getting  the  traces  on   the  wrong   side 


of  the  harness.  (See  Harnessing,  Chapter  XII.) 
It  will  not  rattle  against  the  under  side  of  the  roller- 
bolt  step  as  does  the  metal  slide  of  the  loop  (A). 
Public-coach  traces  frequently  have  chain  ends  about 
20  inches  long,  which  terminate  in  a  ring,  by  which 
the    chain    is    looped    over    the    roller-bolt.     These 


chains  are  not  as  good  as  the  French  loops,  since, 
notwithstanding  the  swivels  in  them,  they  frequently 
take  a  partial  turn  and  bring  the  edge  of  the  trace 
against  the  horse. 


CH.   XI  PAD  219 

A  good  arrangement  for  trace-ends,  lately  intro- 
duced in  England, *  is  shown  in  Fig.  103.  On  pull- 
ing the  end  of  the  short  strap  out  of  the  metal  loop, 
the  trace  is  released  from  the  roller-bolt.  This  is 
important  in  the  case  of  a  fallen  horse,  since  to  un- 
buckle the  trace  at  the  tug-buckle,  or  to  get  any  of 
the  ordinary  trace-ends  off  the  roller-bolt,  is  almost 
impossible. 

The  near  horse's  traces  should  have  the  short 
straps  both  toward  the  near  side,  and  the  off  horse's 
toward  the  off  side,  so  as  to  be  easily  reached.  This 
short  strap  can  always  be  pulled  out,  no  matter  how 
much  strain  there  is  on  the  trace. 

The  lead-traces  terminate  in  cock-eyes  (Fig.  104), 
which  hook  on  the  hooks  of  the  lead-bars.     Traces 


Fig.   104. 

should  be  of  such  length  that  even  when  they  are 
buckled  in  the  shortest  hole,  the  point  of  the  trace 
will  not  project  more  than  two  inches  beyond  the 
last  loop  on  the  tug  ;  few  things  look  more  slovenly 
than  six  or  eight  inches  of  trace  flapping  about  in 
front. 

Pad. — The  bridle,  reins,  collar,  hames,  and  traces 
constitute  the  absolutely  essential  parts  of  the  har- 
ness, and  street-car  and  omnibus-harness,  and  some- 

*  Williamson  &  De  Negri,  London. 


2  20  PAD  CH.   XI 

times  public-coach  lead-harness,  have  no  other  parts. 
The  pad  is  used  on  all  wheel-harness,  and  on  the 
lead-harness  of  a  drag.  It  is  usually  made  quite 
straight  as  seen  from  the  side  (Fig.  123),  and  has  a 
centre-hook  to  take  the  bearing-rein,  and  a  terret 
on  each  side  for  the  reins  to  pass  through.  In 
wheel-harness  the  centre-hook  is  surmounted  by  the 
centre-terret,  through  which  runs  the  lead-rein. 

In  drag-harness,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  this 
centre-terret  made  to  screw  into  its  place,  so  that  it 
can  be  taken  out  and  replaced  by  a  small  ball  when 
the  harness  is  used  for  a  pair.  Sometimes,  the 
centre-terret  alone,  on  its  stem,  is  put  on  the  wheel- 
pad,  and  no  centre-hook  on  either  wheel-pad  or  lead- 
pad, — on  the  supposition  that  no  bearing-rein  is  to 
be  used  ;  but  it  is  better  to  have  the  centre-hook  ;  a 
bearing-rein  may  be  at  some  time  required.  The 
pad  has  a  broad  strap  or  belly-band,  by  which  it  is 
kept  in  its  place.  This  belly-band  is  usually  one  flat 
niece  eoine  round  the  horse,  and  buckling  on  the 
near  side  of  the  near  horse,  and  the  off  side  of  the 
off  horse. 

The  shape  of  the  pad  is  important.  It  is  fre- 
quently made  too  flat,  or  too  open,  on  the  under 
side,  and  rests  upon  the  spine,  in  which  case  it  will 
inevitably  rub  the  skin,  especially  if  drawn  forward 
by  the  bearing-rein  ;  it  should  stand  up,  as  in  Fig. 
105.  To  the  end  of  the  pad  proper  is  attached  the 
point-strap,  which  buckles  into  a  strap  running  up 
from  the  tug-buckle.      In  drag-harness  this  is  made 


CH.  XI 


PAD 


221 


as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  105,  and  also  in  Fig.  123  ;  in 
public-coach  harness  it  is  usually  made  as  at  B, 
where  one  long  strap  goes  through  both  the  ring  of 


Fig.  105 


the  pad  and  the  loop  on  the  buckle  ;  this  is  usually 
called  the  Newmarket  tug-bearer,  or  Newmarket 
strap.  A  false  belly-band  is  sewed  into  the  under 
loop  of  the  buckle,  and  buckles  on  the  outside  ;  its 
purpose  is  to  keep  the  buckle  from  jumping  up 
when  the  horse  is  moving,  but  it  is  of  doubtful 
utility,  and  its  point  is  apt  to  catch  the  whip  thong. 

Pad  cloths  are  never  used  with  coaching-harness  ; 
they  are  proper  only  with  dress-harness. 

Since  the  lead-rein  passes  from  the  ring  on  the 
bridle  through  the  pad-terret  and  then,  at  a  con- 
siderable angle,  up  to  the  coachman's  hand,  it  tends 
to  pull  the  saddle  forward,  and  to  prevent  this,  the 
back-strap  and  the  crupper  are  added.  This  does 
not  apply  to  the  lead-harness,  from  which  the  back- 


222 


BACK-STRAP 


CH.   XI 


strap  and  crupper  are  sometimes  omitted  ;  but  they 
are  necessary  if  bearing-reins  are  used,  and  on 
drag-harness,  at  least,  it  is  best  to  have  them  on  all 
the  horses.  Public-coach  lead-harness  is  often  made 
without  them. 

Back-Strap. — The  back-strap  of  the  wheel-har- 
ness is  usually  double  (Fig.  106),  but  in  the  lead- 
harness  it  should  be  made  as  in  Fig.  107,  because 
the  loose  point  of  the  double  strap  is  likely  to  catch 


Fig.  106. 


Fig.  107. 

the  fork  of  the  lead-reins,  which  is  annoying  and 
might  cause  an  accident.  There  is  no  objection  to 
using  this  single  strap  on  wheel-harness  also.  The 
crupper-dock  itself  should  be  large  ;  it  is  then  less 
apt  to  wound  the  tail  and  is  a  good  preventive 
against  kicking  ;  a  horse  when  he  kicks  always  puts 
his  tail  tight  down,  and  if  he  cannot  do  so,  he  is  very 
apt  to  give  up  the  attempt  to  kick.  Coaching-har- 
ness is  usually  made  with  the  split  end  of  the  back- 
strap  sewed  to  the  crupper,  which  is  simpler  than  if 
it  is  buckled  to  it,  but  sometimes  a  horse  makes  a 
difficulty  about  having  his  tail  pushed  through  the 
crupper,  and  to  obviate  this,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
spare  back-strap  with  buckles,  or  one  which  is   split 


CH.  XI  BREECHING  223 

very  far  up,  which  will  serve  the  same  purpose. 
The  back-strap  should  be  short  enough  to  keep 
the  pad  well  back  ;  when  the  pad  is  close  to  the 
withers  and  to  the  collar  the  apparent  length  of  the 
horse  is  diminished. 

Hip-straps  or  trace-bearers  are  not  used  on  coach- 
harness,  but  sometimes,  when  driving  a  young  horse 
on  the  lead,  they  are  useful,  because  if  he  kicks,  he 
takes  his  trace  up  with  him  and  is  less  apt  to  get 
over  it.  It  is  not  considered  '  crood  form'  to  use 
them,  but  this  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  cases  where 
simplicity  is  purchased  at  the  cost  of  suppressing 
what  is  really  useful. 

For  a  kicking  wheeler,  a  kicking-strap  may  be 
made  fast  to  the  splinter-bar  close  to  the  outer 
roller-bolt,  and,  passing  over  the  horse's  back,  be 
buckled  to  the  pole  two  or  three  feet  in  front  of  the 
futchells  ;  it  should  pass  under  the  back-strap  and 
be  attached  to  it  by  a  small  strap. 

The  thorough  coachman  must  be  always  prepared 
with  the  knowledge  and,  as  far  as  is  possible,  with 
the  appliances,  to  overcome  all  difficulties. 

Breeching. — In  early  days,  when  coaches  had  no 
brakes,  the  wheel  horses  always  had  breechings  to 
enable  them  to  hold  back  in  descending  hills  not 
steep  enough  to  require  the  skid,  and  they  are  now 
sometimes  seen  on  public-coaches  in  hilly  parts  of 
England. 

The  breeching  consists  of  a  strap  somewhat  nar- 


224  REINS  CH.   XI 

rower  than  the  trace  (under  which  it  is  buckled  in 
the  tug-buckle),  passing  behind  the  horse  to  the  tug- 
buckle  on  the  other  side,  as  nearly  horizontally  as 
possible  ;  it  is  held  up  by  a  split  strap  which  passes 
through  or  under  the  back-strap,  over  the  horse's 
hip.  It  may  be  doubled  by  a  wider  strap  where  it 
passes  behind  the  horse. 

Since  the  breeching-  is  not  now  in  fashion,  it  is 
hardly  necessarv  to  describe  it  more  in  detail,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  if  for  any  reason  a  breeching  is 
used,  it  must  be  carefully  put  on,  neither  too  high 
nor  too  low.  It  is  apt  to  chafe  a  horse  not  used  to 
wear  it,  and  the  modern  brake  and  the  shoe  should 
be  together  quite  sufficient. 

In  the  Sporting  Magazine  of  1830,  '  Nimrod' 
speaks  as  if  the  breeching  should  be  attached  to  the 
pole-pieces,  and  criticises  the  custom  in  Germany  of 
attaching  it  to  the  breast-collar.  His  remarks  sue- 
gest  the  arrangement  that  can  still  be  seen  on  heavy 
wagons  in  New  England  cities,  where  a  long  yoke 
crosses  the  point  of  the  pole,  and  to  this  yoke,  and 
not  to  the  trace-tugs,  the  ends  of  the  breeching, 
lengthened  by  straps,  are  fastened. 

Reins. — The  reins  are  made  of  russet  leather 
and  should  all  be  of  the  same  width  throughout. 
One  inch  is  a  good  width,  suiting  the  average  coach- 
man. Some  men  with  long,  thin  fingers  prefer  to 
have  them  a  little  wider,  while  other  persons,  women 
especially,  like  them  an  eighth  of  an  inch  narrower. 


CH.  XI  REINS  2  25 

They  should  be  somewhat  thick,  the  four  together 
measuring  3/^  of  an  inch,  and  should  be  made  of  firm 
leather.  The  outer,  or  draught-rein,  runs  straight 
through  from  the  hand  to  the  bit  ;  the  inner,  or 
coupling-rein,  terminates  in  a  buckle  which  runs  on 
the  draught-rein,  the  latter  having  a  number  of  holes 
to  take  the  tongue  of  this  buckle.  The  reins  buckle 
to  the  bit  by  billets  and  buckles.  Usually  these 
billets  have  three  holes  in  them  so  that  their  places 
in  the  bit  can  be  chanced  ;  but  it  is  better  to  have 
only  one  hole,  and  to  make  all  changes  in  the  length 
of  the  coupling-reins  by  the  buckle  which  runs  on 
the  draught-rein.  This  is  important  for  public-coach 
harness,  because  a  horse-keeper  by  buckling  in  the 
wrong  hole  of  the  billet  will  change  the  length  of  the 
couplings.  An  objection  to  a  billet  long  enough 
to  have  three  holes  is,  that  the  branch  of  the  bit 
may  get  caught  in  the  loop  when  the  rein  is  in  the 
middle  bar.  The  billets  ought  to  be  frequently 
examined,  and  when  one  is  found  to  be  worn,  all 
should  be  replaced,  since  the  breaking  of  a  rein- 
billet  is  sure  to  cause  an  accident. 

The  lengths  of  the  reins  are  as  follows  :  The 
lead  draught-rein  should  be  282  inches  (23  ft.  6  in.) 
in  length  from  the  double  of  the  bit-billet  to  the 
end :  that  is,  from  the  bit  to  the  end.  At  a  dis- 
tance of  81  inches  (6  ft.  9  in.)  from  the  bit  is  the 
middle  hole  of  fifteen  which  are  punched,  one  inch 
apart,  to  take  the  coupling-rein  buckle.  The  hand 
of  the  coachman   will   be   242   inches    (20  ft.    2   in.) 

15 


226  REINS  CH.  XI 

from  the  bit,  leaving  40  inches  (3  ft.  4  in.)  of  rein  to 
hang  down  behind  the  hand. 

If  this  rein  is  made  of  three  lengths  of  leather, 
the  first  splice  should  be  96  inches  (8  feet)  from  the 
bit,  which  will  bring  it  behind  the  holes  in  the  rein, 
and  the  second  splice  192  inches  (16  feet)  from  the 
bit,  or  14  inches  behind  the  pad-terret  of  the  wheel 
horse,  which  is  as  near  as  it  should  be  to  the  terret. 

If  the  rein  is  made  of  four  pieces,  the  first  splice 
will  be  in  the  same  place,  96  inches,  the  second  one 
152  inches  (12  ft.  8  in.),  which  will  bring  it  between 
the  head-terret  and  the  pad-terret  of  the  wheeler, 
and  the  third  splice  220  inches  ( 18  ft.  4  in.)  from  the 
bit,  which  will  bring  it  opposite  to  the  coupling 
buckle  of  the  wheel-rein. 

The  lead  coupling-rein  should  be  85  inches  (7  ft.  1 
in. )  long  from  bit  to  buckle,  and,  when  buckled  into 
the  middle  hole  of  the  draught-rein,  it  will  extend  4 
inches  beyond  the  bit  end  of  the  draught-rein. 

This  length  brings  the  fork  of  the  lead-reins  at 
the  proper  place  ;  if  it  is  further  back,  it  may  catch 
on  the  tail  of  the  leader  and  cause  an  accident. 

The  wheel  draught-rein  is  162  inches  (13  ft.  6  in.) 
in  length  from  bit  to  end  ;  at  98  inches  (8  ft.  2  in.) 
from  the  bit  is  the  middle  hole  of  the  fifteen.  The 
hand  will  be  121  inches  (10  ft.  1  in.)  from  the  bit, 
and  23  inches  from  the  coupling  buckle  ;  and  40 
inches  of  rein  will  hano-  down  behind  the  hand. 

The  splice  is  86  inches  (7  ft.  2  in.)  from  the  bit. 

The   wheel    coupling-rein    is    104  inches   (8   ft.   8 


CH.   XI 


REINS 


227 


in.)  long,  and  will  then  project  6 
inches  beyond  the  draught-rein. 
If  the  leather  used  does  not  per- 
mit of  so  long  a  rein  in  one  piece, 
the  splice  should  be  about  86  inches 
(7  ft.  2  in.)  from  the  bit. 

The  diagram  (Fig.  108),  drawn 
to  a  scale  of  ^  inch  to  the  foot, 
shows  the  position  of  the  terrets 
and  of  the  coupling-buckles. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  there 
shall  be  no  splice  in  that  part  of 
the  rein  which  passes  through  a 
terret,  because,  besides  interfering 
with  the  rein's  free  running,  the 
splice  is  likely  to  rip  by  its  sew- 
ing becoming  worn.  Saddlers  are 
often  careless  about  this,  and  fur- 
nish reins  the  splices  of  which 
correspond  to  the  terrets  or  come 
into  the  hand. 

In  the  diagram  the  proper  places 
of  the  splices  are  marked  ;  for  two 
splices  by  a  single  line  ;  for  three 
splices  by  a  double  line. 

Really  good  reins  are  expen- 
sive, since  the  pieces  of  which  they 
are  made  must  be  cut  out  of  the 
choicest  part  of  the  skin.  They 
must    be     firm     throughout ;    any 


LEAD 

Bit[ 


nm 


Bit 


W  Collar 
<iPad 


U  Buckle 


WHEEL 
Bit 


(1 


Collar  9v 


Bit 

II 


QHead 


Pad  96      A  Pad 


BucHeU 


Hand 


End 


Hand 


End 


Fig.    108. 


2  28  REINS  CH.  XI 

soft  places  will  stretch.  The  greatest  wear  on  the 
lead-rein  is  where  it  passes  through  the  pad-terret 
of  the  wheeler. 

According  to  the  dimensions  given,  about  40 
inches  of  the  ends  of  the  reins  will  hang  down  be- 
hind the  hand,  which  is  as  it  should  be  ;  if  there  is 
more  than  40  inches,  the  ends  will  drop  over  the 
edge  of  the  foot-board  on  the  off  side,  and  be  likely 
to  catch  on  the  roller-bolt  when  the  coachman  is 
getting  up.  The  buckles  of  the  coupling-reins  will 
be  about  23  inches  in  front  of  the  hand,  near  enough 
to  be  reached  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  coup- 
lings, and  not  near  enough  to  bring  the  buckles 
into  the  hand  when  taking  the  horses  up  short, : — 
a  serious  fault  with  coupling-reins  which  are  too 
long,  and  one  which  results  in  getting  a  handful  of 
buckles  at  a  critical  moment,  when  pulling  up  sud- 
denly. This  is  a  very  common  fault  of  reins  by 
even  good  makers.  It  is  better  to  have  the  buckles 
too  far  away  from  the  hand  than  too  near  to  it ; 
there  is  always  a  groom  or  a  guard  on  a  coach  who 
can  change  the  couplings  if  necessary. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  in  favour  of  long  coup- 
ling-reins, that  should  the  horses  run  away  they 
may  sometimes  be  stopped  by  seizing  the  wheel 
coupling-reins  in  front  of  the  buckles  and  pulling 
the  wheeler's  heads  together. 

A  loop  is  frequently  sewed  upon  the  coupling-rein 
about  10  inches  in  front  of  the  buckle,  through 
which  the  draught-rein  passes.      On  the  wheel-reins 


CH.  XI  SHORT    WHEEL-REIN  229 

it  does  no  harm,  but  it  should  not  be  on  the  lead- 
reins,  because,  if  the  coupling  buckle  is  in  the  posi- 
tion given  by  the  directions  above,  this  loop  will 
bring  the  fork  of  the  reins  too  near  the  pad-terrets, 
and  if  the  loop  is  at  the  proper  place  for  the  fork, 
the  buckle  must  be  put  back  10  inches,  with  the 
result  of  having  that  much  more  weight  of  rein  to 
no  purpose. 

This  loop  is  a  somewhat  modern  arrangement, 
and  on  pair-horse  harness  keeps  the  reins  together 
at  the  proper  point,  while  permitting  the  buckle  to 
be  near  enough  to  the  coachman's  hand  to  enable 
him  to  alter  it,  and  its  use  for  a  pair  has  probably 
led  harness-makers  to  put  it  on  four-horse  harness. 

The  keeper  or  loop,  in  front  of  the  coupling 
buckle,  should  not  be  nearer  to  the  buckle  than  2^ 
inches  or  else  it  will  be  difficult  to  change  the  place 
of  the  buckle  quickly :  for  the  same  reason,  the 
holes  should  be  long  and  not  round. 

The  reins,  at  the  end  behind  the  hand,  usually 
have  buckles,  by  which  they  can  be  fastened  to- 
gether ;  a  substitute  for  this  arrangement  will  be 
described  in  Chapter  XII. 

Four-horse  reins  are  never  made  of  black  leather, 
nor  round,  nor  have  they  hand  parts  separate  from 
the  rest  of  the  rein,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  pair- 
horse  harness. 

In  the  early  days  of  English  coaching,  a  short 
wheel-rein  was  used.  It  was  made  just  long  enough 
to  come  into  the  hand,  and  hung  on  the  second  and 


230 


LEAD-REIX 


CH.   XI 


third  fingers.  Its  buckle  was  not  in  the  middle, 
where  it  would  have  been  in  the  way,  but  a  few 
inches  to  one  side,  on  the  off  rein.  It  went  out  of 
use  about  1825,  being  considered  dangerous,  be- 
cause, should  a  wheeler  fall,  the  coachman  might 
be  pulled  off  his  box  ;  and  it  was,  no  doubt,  fre- 
quently too  short  or  too  long,  and  in  either  case 
inconvenient. 

According  to  '  Nimrod'  (Essays,  p.  208),  the  ma- 
jority of  coachmen  in  the  early  part  of  this  century, 
drove  with  a  short  wheel-rein,  and  he  discusses  the 
question  pro  and  con  through  four  pages,  but  it  is 
now  only  a  matter  of  history,  since  it  has  gone 
entirely  out  of  fashion.  According  to  him  (Essays, 
p.  285),  Sir  Philip  Agar  used  a  short  wheel-rein 
when  he  drove  his  coach  at  a  trot  round  the  fox 

which  stood  in  the  centre  of 
Tattersall's  old  yard  ;  a  feat 
referred  to  in  several  of  the 
coaching  books. 

The  wheel  horses  are  kept  to- 
gether by  the  pole-chains,  but 
since  the  lead  horses  are  quite 
free,  one  of  them,  by  shying  sud- 
denly, can  pull  his  coupling-rein 
with  the  buckle  and  a  part  of 
the  draught-rein,  through  his 
partner's  pad-terret,  where  it 
becomes  jammed,  with  every  chance  of  causing  an 
accident.     To  prevent  this,  a  piece  of  steel,  about 


Fig.    109. 


CH.   XI 


LEAD-REIN 


23I 


31^  inches  long',  covered  with  leather  (Fig.  109),  is 
slipped  on  the  coupling-rein  in  front  of  the  loop  (as 
is  frequently  done  on  the  snaffle-rein  of  a  riding 
bridle  to  keep  the  martingale  ring  from  catching  on 
the  buckle),  and  this  bar  is  too  long  to  go  through 
the  terret.  It  must  be  strong,  because  a  horse  in  shy- 
ing, will  bring  it  with  great  force  against  the  terret. 
It  may  be  put  upon  the  coupling-rein  in  front  of  the 
loop,  when  there  is  a  loop  in  front  of  the  buckle  (it 
is  obvious  that  with  the  loop  a  bar  at  the  buckle 
would  be  of  no  use)  ;  but  it  will  not  be  so  strongly 
fastened  at  the  loop  as  when  it  is  supported  by 
the  buckle  ;  this  is  a  good  reason  for  omitting  the 
loop. 

Another  device  for  the  same  purpose  is  shown  in 
Fig.  no  :  a  piece  of  steel,  somewhat  narrower  than 
the  rein,  curved  in  section  so  as  to  increase  its  stiff- 
ness, and  covered  with  leather,  is  fastened  at  one 


Fig.    iio. 


Fig.  hi. 


end,  by  letting  the  tongue  of  the  buckle  pass  through 
the  projecting  leather,  and  at  the  other  end  by  a  loop 
which  holds  it  on  the  draught-rein.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  Figure  that  if  the  coupling-rein  should 
be  pulled  through  the  terret,  it  will  be  stopped,  by 


the  steel  bar  orettina-  across  the  terret. 


The  strain 


232  LEAD-REIX  CH.   XI 

evidently  comes  upon  the  loop,  and  this  must  be 
fastened  on  strongly.  This  bar  can  be  also  put  on 
the  rein  when  there  is  a  loop  at  some  distance  in 
front  of  the  buckle,  as  in  FjV.  111.  In  this  case  the 
main  loop  must  be  very  strong. 

What  is  known  as  Ward's  terret,  from  the  well- 
known  English  coachman  who  introduced  it,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  112.  It  is  used  on  the  lead  horses 
only,  and  has  a  bar  across  its  centre  with 
an  opening  in  it  through  which  the  rein 
can  be  passed  edgewise  into  its  place. 
The  space  in  which  the  rein  is  shown,  is 
too  small  to  permit  the  coupling  buckle 
Fig.  112.  to  be  pulled  through  it,  but  the  billet 
and  buckle  for  the  bit  will  pass  through  the  larger 
space. 

It  may  be  noted  that  bar  buckles,  often  used  on 
dress  harness,  but  rarely  on  coach-harness,  are  dan- 
gerous on  the  coupling-reins,  since,  should  a  leader 
behave  badly  and  run  back,  or  turn  round,  the  front 
edge  of  the  bar  buckle  may  catch  in  the  throat-latch 
ring  of  the  wheeler  behind  him,  especially  if  the 
coupling-rein  is  too  long  and  the  buckle,  conse- 
quently, far  back.  This  happened  once  in  my  expe- 
rience, fortunately  without  any  serious  result,  since, 
as  we  were  leaving  a  house  through  an  awkward 
gateway,  the  men  were  still  near  the  horses'  heads, 
and  one  of  them  instantly  cleared  the  rein. 

A  method  of  buckling  together  the  wheel-reins 
and  lead-reins  is  used  in  Hungary  : — 


CH.   XI  POLE-CHAINS  233 

The  lead-reins  are  made  in  the  usual  way,  but  the 
wheel-reins  terminate  in  buckles,  and  are  buckled 
to  the  lead-reins  precisely  as  a  coupling-rein  is  at- 
tached to  a  draught-rein  (Fig.  113),  with  a  distance 


Fig.  113. 

of  about  ten  inches  between  the  buckles.  In  driving, 
the  portion  of  the  wheel-rein  which  is  between  the 
buckles,  and  that  part  of  the  lead-rein  which  is  oppo- 
site to  it,  come  into  the  hand.  For  the  method  of 
using  this  rein  see  page  476. 

Pole-Chains. — Pole-chains,  and  not  leather  pole- 
straps,  are  always  used  on  a  coach.  Originally 
they  were  fastened  to  the  pole-head,  as  they  still  are 
on  farm  wagons  ;  but  now  they  are  separate  from 
the  pole,  and  may  be  therefore  considered  as  part 
of  the  harness.  On  a  public-coach,  if  the  pole-head 
and  the  fittings  of  the  bars  are  black,  the  chains 
are  black  also,  and  are  kept  in  condition  by  being 
painted  or  varnished.  On  drags,  they  are  always 
of  polished  steel,  and  on  some  public-coaches  they 
are  also  of  polished  steel.  The  approved  forms  are 
shown  in  Figs.  114,  115  ;  they  should  have  straight 
open  links,  and  not  links  like  a  curb-chain.  For  a 
public-coach,  one  end  has  a  ring,  and  the  chain  being 
passed   through  the  ring  of  the  pole-head,   passes 


234 


POLE-CHAINS 


CH.  XI 


afterward    through    its    own    ring,    making    a    loop. 
The  hook  end  is  then  run  through  the  ring-  of  the 


Fig.  115. 

kidney-link,  and  hooked  into  that  link  of  the  chain 
which  will  make  it  of  the  proper  length  (Fig.  1 16). 

A  stout  india-rubber  ring,  which 
has  been  already  put  on  the  chain, 
is  pushed  over  the  bow  of  the 
hook  to  keep  it  from  unhooking. 


The  hook  must  be  always  put  on,  back  up,  to  pre- 
vent the  bar  of  the  bit,  if  a  bit  with  a  bar  is  used, 


CH.  XI  POLE-CHAINS  235 

from  catching  in  the  point.  The  chain  should  be 
somewhat  short,  otherwise  the  hook  may  come  down 
to  the  pole-head  before  the  horse  is  poled  up  tightly 
enough. 

This  chain  may  be  used  on  a  drag,  but  a  chain 
with  two  spring  hooks  (Fig.  115)  looks  better.  It 
may  be  somewhat  short,  so  that  the  hook  can  be 
hooked  into  any  link  ;  but  for  a  private  coach,  it  is 
better  to  find  the  exact  length  required,  by  experi- 
ment with  the  chain  (which,  when  bought,  is  always 
too  long),  to  cut  off  enough  links  to  make  it  the 
proper  length  when  both  hooks  are  in  the  pole-head, 
and  to  have  the  hook  properly  fastened  into  the  end 
link.  No  links  must  be  left  beyond  that  one  in 
which  the  hook  is  fastened  ;  few  things  are  more 
slovenly  on  any  kind  of  a  carriage  than  loose  links 
dangling  and  jingling.* 

The  spring  hooks  must  be  put  on  the  pole-head 
with  their  backs  up,  to  prevent  the  bar  of  the  bit 
from  catching  in  them  ;  but  since  the  rings  on  the 
pole-head  are  usually  vertical,  the  hooks  will  be 
horizontal,  which  serves  the  same  purpose.  Spring 
hooks  are  frequently  so   made  that  the   small   eye 


*  Pole  chains  should  be  used  only  on  a  carriage  driven  by  the 
master  or  mistress,  such  as  a  coach,  mail-phaeton,  or  lady's  phaeton  ; 
never  on  a  carriage  driven  by  a  coachman,  such  as  a  landau,  coupe, 
or  victoria,  when  straps  should  be  used.  This  is  a  custom  based  upon 
the  fact  that  the  working  originals  of  coaches  and  mail-phaetons 
had  chains  ;  an  adherence  to  it  marks  the  difference  between  well 
turned-out  and  badly  turned-out  vehicles. 


2^6  COCK    HORSE    HARNESS  CH.  XI 


opens  when  the  tongue  is  pushed  open  (Fig.  117), 
and  are  thus  hooked  into  the  chain  ;  they  are  very 
likely  to  pinch  the  fingers  when  put- 
ting- them  on,  and  are  not  so  strong 
^G    II7         as  the  hooks  shown  in  Fig.  115. 

Cock  Horse  Harness. — Sometimes,  on  a  road 
where  a  stiff  hill  has  to  be  surmounted,  an  extra 
horse,  usually  called  a  'cockhorse,'*  ridden  by  a 
man,  is  required.  A  good  pattern  of  cock  horse 
harness  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIV.  The  riding  saddle 
has  one  wide  girth  of  leather  or  web.  The  upper 
eye  of  the  tug-buckle  has  a  short  strap  and  buckle 
sewed  into  it,  which  buckles  on  one  of  the  usual 
saddle  girth  straps  under  the  flap. 

There  being  no  necessity  for  changing  the  length 
of  a  cock  horse  trace,  it  is  better  to  make  it  in  one 
piece  from  the  draught-eye  to  the  bar.  There  is 
then  no  buckle  under  the  saddle-flap,  where  it  is 
always  a  discomfort  to  the  rider.  A  simple  loop  is 
sewed  under  the  flap  to  support  the  trace,  and  the 
false  belly-band,  which  is  of  no  use,  is  omitted.  The 
trace  should  be  6  ft.  6  in.  long,  from  collar  to  bar. 

*  John  Bellexden  Ker  says,  '  Ghack-horse,  now  cock-horse, 
'literally  fool-horse,  in  the  sense  of  one  who  lets  another  ride  him. 
'  The  cock-horse  among  school-boys,  is  the  one  who  is  fool  enough 
'to  carry  another  astride  on  his  back.'  Archeology  of  Nursery 
Rhymes,  vol.  i.  p.  274.  Ghack,  according  to  Ker,  is  old  Dutch. 
Gek  is  fool  in  modern  Dutch.  Ker's  derivations  are  often  fanciful  ; 
this  is  given  merely  as  a  matter  of  curiosity. 


o 
o 
o 
?; 

i 
o 

33 


I 
> 

33 

-z 
m 


CH.  XI  COCK    HORSE    HARNESS  237 

The  rope,  which  passes  between  the  leaders,  and 
is  hooked  to  the  pole-hook  on  top  of  the  main-bar, 
should  be  10  feet  long,  including  its  two  hooks.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  wrap  the  rope  for  a  distance  of  two 
feet  with  sheepskin,  with  the  wool-side  out,  where  it 
comes  against  the  shoulders  of  the  leaders,  to  pre- 
vent chafing  them.  The  hip-strap,  shown  in  the  plate 
immediately  behind  the  saddle,  is  perhaps  hardly 
necessary.  A  strap,  3  feet  long,  with  a  spring  hook 
at  each  end,  should  be  provided,  to  fasten  into  the 
kidney-links  of  the  leaders'  collars,  across  from  one 
horse  to  the  other,  on  which  the  rope  may  rest  when 
the  cock-horse  is  not  pulling.  It  is  well  to  have  a 
ring,  about  three  inches  in  diameter,  in  the  middle 
of  this  strap,  through  which  the  rope  is  passed. 

The  cock  horse  bridle  is  like  the  bridles  of  the 
other  horses. 

If  two  extra  horses  are  required,  they  have  the 
regular  lead-harness,  with  the  addition  of  a  saddle 
on  the  near  horse,  and  with  a  set  of  bars  attached 
to  the  rope  ;  or  they  may  have  traces 
long  enough  to  reach  back  to  the 
tug-buckles  of  the  leaders,  as  in  an 
equipage  a  la  Daumont,  in  which  case  Fig.  118. 
the  tug-buckles  of  the  lead-harness  must  be  made 
with  eyes  to  take  the  hooks  of  the  traces  (Fig.  118), 
exactly  like  a  tandem  harness.  These  traces  must 
be  10  ft.  8  in.  long  from  tug-buckle  to  hook. 

Compare  Plate  VI.,  Rowlandson,  in  which  the 
regular  leaders  are  thus  harnessed. 


238        GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  HARNESS      CH.  XI 
GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  HARNESS 

As  has  been  before  remarked  (p.  14),  a  coach  is 
a  sporting  vehicle,  and  the  harness  should  be  plain 
and  look  serviceable.  The  illustrations  which  have 
been  given,  are  taken  from  a  set  of  harness  carefully 
made  as  a  standard  pattern,  and  can  be  safely  copied 
for  a  drag-harness. 

The  loops  through  which  the  loose  points  of  the 
various  straps  pass  behind  the  buckles,  are  some- 
times replaced  by  '  pipes'  or  continuous  loops,  but 
there  is  more  coaching  style  about  the  separate 
loops. 

The  winkers,  the  front  (whether  it  has  a  chain  on 
it  or  not),  the  face  drop,  the  outside  of  the  collar, 
the  ornament  on  the  martingale,  and  the  top  of  the 
pad  are  all  made  of  patent  leather  ;  *  the  rest  of  the 
harness  is  made  of  plain,  black  leather,  firm  in 
quality,  but  with  a  smooth,  velvety  surface,  not 
showing-  minute  cracks  when  bent  over  the  finder. 
The  reins  are  of  russet  leather  (usually  called  rein 
leather),  even  in  thickness  and  quality  throughout 
the  whole  length,  and  since  such  leather  is  difficult 
to  obtain,  four-in-hand  reins  are  necessarily  expen- 
sive. 

English  russet  leather,  especially  such  as  is  used 
for   riding-bridles    (usually   called   tallow-tanned),   is 


*  Patent  leather  is  modern  :  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
it  was  unknown. 


CH.  XI  MOUNTINGS    OF    HARNESS  239 

better  than  American  russet  leather  ;  but  American 
black  leather,  such  as  is  used  in  the  rest  of  the 
harness,  is  more  even  in  surface  and  wears  better 
than  the  English. 

The  mountings  and  buckles  of  the  harness  shown 
in  the  illustrations,  are  those  known  to  harness- 
makers  as  the  English  wire  mountings,  and  are 
the  simplest  and  best ;  no  fanciful  mountings  are 
admissible  on  coach-harness. 

Whether  the  mountings  of  a  drasf-harness  are  of 
silver  or  of  brass  is  a  matter  of  taste,  but  for  a 
public-coach  they  are  always  of  brass  ;  carrying  out 
the  old  road  traditions.* 

All  the  mountings  of  harness,  carriages,  whips, 
&c,  should  be  of  the  same  metal  in  any  one  stable, 
and  those  of  the  coach  must  conform  thereto. 
White  mountings  may  be  nickel-plated  as  well  as 
silver-plated,  and  nickel  has  the  advantage  of  being 
hard  and  of  keeping  its  polish  with  but  little 
cleaning ;  since  all  cleaning  of  the  mountings 
with  powder  is  apt  to  injure  the  leather,  this  is 
an  advantage. 

Among  yellow  metals,  aluminium-bronze,  one  part 
by  weight  of  aluminium  to  nine  of  copper,  is  strong 
and  does  not  tarnish  readily,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
procure,  while  the  common  patterns  of  mountings 
in  brass  can  be  had  everywhere. 


*  'Nimrod,'  Northern  Tour,  p.  333,  1835,  speaks  of  silver-plated 
furniture  being  old-fashioned  for  a  public-coach. 


24O  SPARE    PARTS    OF    HARNESS  CH.   XI 

Bits,  chains,  kidney-links,  and  the  cock-eyes  of 
lead-traces  are  always  of  bright  steel.  The  loops 
of  the  wheel-traces  are  of  the  same  metal  as  the 
mountings. 

All  the  steel  about  coach  and  harness  should  be 
white,  hard,  and  close  grained  ;  some  steel  is  soft 
and  blue,  and  will  always  have  a  leaden  look,  no 
matter  how  well  it  is  polished  and  burnished. 

Spare  Parts  of  Harness. — The  following  spare 
parts  of  harness  should  be  carried  in  the  coach  : — 

A  hame-strap,  useful  for  many  purposes  besides 
its  legitimate  one  ;  a  kidney-link,  a  curb-chain,  or, 
better,  a  curb-strap,  which  is  more  useful,  in  the 
case  of  a  curb-hook's  breaking  ;  a  simple  bearing- 
rein,  with  its  bit  and  the  short  straps  by  which  the 
rings  are  attached  to  the  crown-piece  (Fig.  87)  ;  a 
chain-trace, — that  is,  a  chain  6  feet  long,  with  straight 
flat  links  like  a  pole-chain,  and  a  ring  at  one  end, 
so  that  it  can  be  put,  as  required,  round  the 
roller-bolt,  or  hooked  to  the  lead-bar,  the  straight 
links  going  into  the  tug-buckle  ;  a  strap  6  inches 
long  and  of  the  same  width  as  the  reins,  with  a 
buckle  at  each  end,  to  be  used  in  repairing  a  broken 
rein  ;  and  two  or  three  pieces  of  cord  of  different 
sizes. 

Strong,  round,  black  linen  shoe-laces,  with  the 
usual  metal  tags  on  the  ends,  are  very  useful  for 
temporary  repairs  ;  the  tags  can  be  quickly  passed 
through  holes  made  in  the  leather.     The  coachman 


CH.   XI  SIDE-REIN  241 

will   not    find   it   amiss   to   have   one   always   in   his 
pocket. 

When  there  is  any  chance  of  having  a  pulling 
horse,  a  side-rein  should  be  carried.  The  simplest 
is  a  strap  to  buckle  to  the  bit,  and  long  enough 
to  pass  through  the  hame-terret  of  the  other  horse, 
and  then  to  go  into  the  tug-buckle.  Since  this  pulls 
on  one  side  of  the  horse's  mouth,  it  should  be  used 
only  when  nothing  else  is  at  hand.  The  proper  rein 
is  shown  in  Fig.  119.  The  short  strap,  which  is 
neater  when  round,  is  buckled  to  both  sides  of  the 
bit,  and  the  ring  on  the  end  of  the  side-rein  plays 
upon  it,  so  that  the  rein  draws  evenly. 

In  an  emer- 
gency, a  side- 
rein  may  be 
made  with  a 
piece  of  cord  an 
eighth  of  an  inch 

in    diameter,    as 

1  -        -,-.-  Fig.  119.  Fig.  120. 

shown     in     rig.  J 

120.      One  end  of  the  cord  is  tied  to  a  ring,  then 

passed   through  one   side  of  the  bit,   back  through 

the   ring,   then   through   the   other   side   of  the   bit, 

double  knotted  into  the  ring,  and  the  long  end  made 

fast  to  the  other  horse's  tug-buckle.      In  lack  of  a 

ring,  a  loop  may  be  made  on  the  cord  itself. 

Care  of  Harness. — On  being  taken  off  the  horses, 

after  even  the  shortest  drive,  all  parts  of  the  harness 

16 


242  CARE    OF    HARNESS  CH.   XI 

should  be  thoroughly  wiped  with  a  cloth,  no  dust 
being  left  under  the  buckles,  or  in  the  loops,  every 
strap  being  unbuckled  and  cleaned  throughout  its 
whole  length.  The  inside  of  the  collars  and  parts  on 
which  sweat  has  lodged  must  be  well  cleaned  with 
water,  and  dirt  on  other  parts  which  the  cloth  will 
not  remove  must  be  washed  off,  without  wetting  the 
leather  more  than  is  necessary.  The  mountings 
should  then  be  polished,  using  as  little  powder  as 
possible,  care  being  taken  not  to  smear  the  leather 
round  the  mountings,  or  to  scratch  it  with  the  powder. 

The  harness-maker  usually  furnishes  thin  plates 
of  metal  which  fit  round  the  monogram,  or  crest, 
and  protect  the  leather  from  the  cleaning  powder. 

The  leather  should  then  be  blackened  and  pol- 
ished. Much  the  best  thing  for  this  purpose  is  the 
black  preparation  of  wax  and  turpentine  sold  by 
harness-makers,  or  by  shoemakers  for  polishing  kid 
shoes.  It  is  expensive,  but  protects  the  leather 
from  the  effects  of  wet,  gives  a  good  surface,  and 
does  not  rub  off  upon  the  hand  or  glove  ;  ordinary 
shoe-blacking  is  dirty.  The  same  preparation,  with- 
out the  black  ingredient,  is  the  proper  application  for 
reins  and  for  whatever  is  of  russet  leather,  such  as 
saddles  and  boot-tops,  and  is  usually  called  saddle- 
paste.  It  must  be  applied  sparingly,  and  well  pol- 
ished by  rubbing,  or  it  will  be  sticky. 

Every  now  and  then,  and  especially  after  a  wetting 
in  the  rain,  harness  should  be  oiled  thoroughly  with 
neat's-foot  oil,  well  rubbed  in  and  well  rubbed  off. 


CH.  XI  CARE    OF    HARNESS  243 

No  varnish  should  be  used  ;  it  hardens  the  leather, 
and  soon  cracks,  and  looks  shabby. 

Patent  leather  should  be  wiped  and  polished  with 
a  soft  rag  and  a  little  oil,  or  vaseline,  but  the  wax 
preparation  should  not  be  used  on  it. 

In  damp  weather  a  fire  is  essential  in  or  near  the 
harness-room.  Cleaning  should  not  be  done  in  the 
harness-room,  but  a  light,  airy  place  of  sufficient 
size  for  the  purpose  is  necessary  to  secure  the  best 
results.  Iron  rods  terminating  in  hooked  ends  of 
good  size,  covered  with  leather,  and  of  such  a  length 
as  will  bring  the  pieces  of  harness  to  a  proper 
height  for  a  man  to  work  at  them  when  the  rods 
are  hung  to  hooks  in  the  ceiling,  will  be  found  more 
convenient  for  holding-  harness  while  it  is  being 
cleaned,  than  the  trestles  or  horses  which  are  gen- 
erally used.  There  should  be  rods  of  two  lengths, 
a  short  one  to  hold  the  collar,  &c,  and  a  longer  one 
to  hold  the  bridle.  When  not  in  use  they  may  be 
unhooked  and  hung  against  the  wall  out  of  the  way. 

The  steel  pole-chains,  bits,  and  curb-chains  should 
be  washed  and  dropped  into  a  covered  vessel  con- 
taining lime-water,  which  is  made  by  dissolving  in 
water  as  much  common  lime  as  the  water  will  take 
up,  and  pouring  off,  for  use,  the  clear  liquid.  In 
this  they  can  remain  for  any  length  of  time  without 
rusting,  and  the  chains  in  every-day  use  may  be 
kept  in  the  vessel,  and  taken  out  only  when  wanted. 
They  are  then  roughly  dried  and  put  into  a  long 
bag  with  a  little  sawdust  and  fine  sand,  and  shaken 


244  CARE    OF    HARNESS  CH.   XI 

until  they  become  bright.  For  this  purpose,  a  can- 
vas bag  about  thirty  inches  long,  with  a  strong 
handle  at  each  end,  is  convenient.  The  curb-chains 
are  usually  polished  by  rolling  between  the  hands. 

The  bits  should  be  taken  out  of  the  lime-water 
after  the  harness  is  cleaned  ;  wiped,  polished,  and 
put  in  the  bit-case.  If  they  have  rusty  spots,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  rub  them  with  very  fine  emery 
paper,  but  if  this  is  done  they  must  be  afterward 
burnished. 

Steel  articles  when  received  from  the  maker,  have 
a  high  polish,  which  makes  them  more  capable  of 
resisting  the  action  of  dampness  in  producing  rust. 

The  ordinary  stable  method  of  cleaning,  with 
sand  or  emery  cloth,  will  not  produce  this  polish,  but 
leaves  a  surface  full  of  minute  scratches,  and  very 
liable  to  rust.  The  only  way  of  regaining  a  surface 
at  all  resembling  the  original  one,  is  by  burnishing, 
which  consists  in  rubbing  with  a  smooth  and  very 
hard,  steel  instrument.  This  consolidates  the  surface 
somewhat,  or,  at  least,  rubs  down  the  edges  of  the 
scratches,  obliterating  the  lines  made  by  the  emery. 

Usually  a  sufficiently  satisfactory 
result  can  be  obtained  by  rubbing 
with  a  hard,  steel  chain,  fastened  to 
a  pad,  so  as  to  be  held  in  the  hand 
(Fig.  121).     For  large,  fixed  pieces 

r  TO       12  1 

of  steel,  like  the  pole-head,  a  long 
steel  chain  can  be  pulled  backward  and  forward 
across    it.       In    any    case,    considerable    force   and 


CH.  XI 


CARE    OF    HARNESS 


245 


pressure  must  be  applied,  but  steel  cannot  be  made 
to  look  well  without  the  burnisher. 

When  harness  is  put  away,  it  should  be  hung 
against  the  wall  on  racks  made  for  the  purpose. 
Iron  racks,  made  open  so  that  the  air  circulates 
through  them,  are  sold  by  makers  of  stable  fittings. 
A  good  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

The  crupper  dock  hangs  upon  a 
small  semi-circle  which  can  be  raised 
or  lowered,  so  that  the  back-strap 
will  hang  taut  to  the  pad. 

The  pad  rests  upon  a  bracket  of 
the  proper  shape.  The  collar  with 
its  tupfs  han^s  on  a  curved  bracket 
at  the  top.  Under  the  pad  bracket, 
the  bridle  hangs  on  a  bracket,  also 
made  to  the  proper  curve.  If  the 
bracket  has  a  rim  to  keep  the  bridle 
from  slipping  off,  this  rim  should 
be  cut  through  at  the  top,  so  that 
the  face-drop  will  lie  in  the  notch, 
and  the  bridle  be  kept  straight,  a 
precaution  to  which  reference  has 
been  already  made  when  describing 
the  bridle.  When  a  bridle  is  huno- 
on  a  hook,  this  face-drop  is,  of  ne- 
cessity, on  one  side  or  the  other  of 
the  hook,  and  the  bridle  will  be  bent  out  of  shape. 

The  traces  and  the  reins  are  hune  on  small  hooks 
alongside  of  the  harness. 


Fig.  122. 


246  CARE    OF    HARNESS  CH.   XI 

Harness  is  frequently  protected  by  glass  doors, 
but  if  the  room  is  clean,  dry,  and  well-closed,  this 
is  hardly  necessary. 

The  bits,  chains,  and  all  steel  articles,  should  be 
arranged  in  a  bit-case  with  crlass  doors,  which  is 
lined  with  a  bright-coloured  baize  or  cloth.  In  this 
bit-case,  the  flowers  may  be  kept,  and  it  can  be 
made  a  handsome  feature  in  the  harness-room.  If 
there  is  an  open  fire,  the  bit-case  may  be  placed  on 
the  wall  above  it. 

In  a  well-regulated  stable,  the  harness-room  may 
be  made  an  attractive  place  ;  the  floor  should  be 
covered  with  matting,  and  some  coaching  prints  on 
the  walls  will  add  to  its  cheerfulness. 

Small  spare  parts  of  harness,  clippers,  bandages, 
and  new  cloths  should  be  kept  in  a  cabinet  di- 
vided into  a  number  of  shallow  drawers  ;  in  deep 
drawers  the  articles  most  wanted  are  invariably  at 
the  bottom. 


CH.   XII  247 


CHAPTER   XII 

HARNESSING 

With  a  public-coach  team,  it  is  usually  considered 
advisable  to  put  on  each  horse's  collar  about  half  an 
hour  before  he  is  to  go  out,  that  it  may  get  warm 
against  his  neck,  and  so  be  less  liable  to  chafe  him 
in  his  work.  Unless,  however,  it  is  fastened  back 
in  some  way,  such  as  by  drawing  in  front  of  it  the 
neck  part  of  his  rug,  it  will  slip  forward  the  first 
time  that  the  horse  puts  his  head  down,  and  will 
not  stay  in  its  place  to  get  warm. 

The  collar  having  been  put  on,  the  hames  are 
buckled  on  it  afterward.  The  practice  of  putting 
the  harness  on  all  together,  with  the  hames  buckled 
on  the  collar, — almost  universal  in  private  stables 
on  account  of  its  convenience, — is  not  a  good  one  ; 
the  collar  with  the  hames  in  place,  is  frequently 
too  narrow  to  go  easily  over  the  horse's  head, 
and  by  forcing  it  on,  the  horse  is  hurt.  After  the 
harness  is  laid  on  the  horse's  back,  the  crupper 
put  under  the  tail,  and  the  belly-band  temporarily 
buckled  to  keep  the  pad  from  slipping  off,  the 
hames  are  fastened  upon  the  collar.  The  martin- 
gale is  then  buckled  to  the  collar  (see  Fig.  100), 
and  the  belly-band  passed  through  it. 

The  traces  are  laid  over  the  back,   crossed,   the 


248 


HARNESSING 


CH.   XII 


outside  trace  on  top,  .so  that  in  putting-to  it  will 
come  off  first ;  the  habit  that  some  coachmen  have, 
of  tying  a  knot  in  the  trace  to  keep  it  from  drag- 
ging on  the  ground  is  not  a  good  one,  because  the 
knot  twists  the  trace. 

The    bridle    is    then    put    on,    the    reins    passed 
through  the  terrets,  the  drauoht-rein  buckled  to  the 

bit,  and  the  coupling-rein 
to  the  throat-latch  or  to 
the  nose-band,  under  the 
chin.  Passing  the  rein- 
billet  through  its  loop,  but 
not  through  its  buckle,  is 
sufficient  to  hold  it. 

The  rein  must  then  be 
looped  over  the  centre- 
terret  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  123.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  rein 
which  has  no  buckle  at  the 
end  is  put  on  the  near 
horse.  The  reason  for 
this  is,  that,  when  at  a 
chancre,  the  reins  are 
thrown  over  from  the  near 
FlG-  I23-  to  the  off  side  so  as   to  be 

taken  up  by  the  coachman,  the  heavy  buckle  end 
might  hurt  a  person  standing  on  the  off  side.  It  is 
therefore  a  rule,  that,  even  when  there  is  to  be  no 
chano-e  of  horses,  the  reins  should  be  thus  put  on, 


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CH.  XII  PUTTING-TO  249 

and  it  is  in  this  way  that  they  are  distinguished 
from  each  other.  In  some  stables,  it  is  the  custom 
for  the  reins  of  a  pair  to  be  put  on  the  other  way, 
that  is,  with  the  buckle-ended  rein  on  the  near  horse 
but,  in  a  four-in-hand  stable  at  least,  it  should  be 
the  rule  to  put  the  buckle-ended  rein  on  the  off 
horse,  so  as  to  avoid  mistakes  in  harnessing. 

On  the  lead  horses,  the  long  rein  is  pulled 
through  the  terrets  in  the  way  shown  in  Plate 
XXV.  ;  if  the  bight  of  the  rein,  in  front  of  the 
collar-terret,  is  too  long,  it  may  be  loosely  looped 
on  itself  behind  the  collar-terret. 

After  beine  harnessed,  the  horse  is  turned  about 
in  his  stall,  and  fastened  by  snapping  the  pillar- 
reins  into  the  bit.  His  mane  is  then  brushed  and 
his  foretop  pulled  down  smoothly  under  the  bridle 
front. 

Putting-to. — The  coach  having  been  run  into  the 
proper  position  for  driving  out,  and  thoroughly 
dusted  and  looked  over,  the  pole  is  put  in,  the 
pole-pin  put  in  its  place,  and  the  lead-bars  hung 
on  the  pole-hook,  with  the  heads  of  the  screws 
up  ;  they  are  up  so  that,  should  one 
come  out,  its  loss  would  be  noticed 
from  the  box-seat. 

The  chains  are  put  on  the  pole- 
head   in   the   manner   shown   in   Fig.    124,   and   laid 
across  each  other  over  the  pole. 

The    wheel    horses    are    then    brought    to    their 


250  PUTTING-TO  CH.  XII 

places.  If  possible,  they  should  be  led  up  along- 
side of  the  pole  from  behind,  instead  of  being 
brought  with  their  heads  to  the  pole  and  then 
pushed  round,  during  which  movement  they  are  apt 
to  strike  against  the  splinter-bar,  or  to  slip  on  the 
floor.  The  hooks  of  the  pole-chains  are  hooked  to 
the  kidney-link  rings  ;  the  whole  length  of  the  chain 
allows  the  horse  to  go  back  far  enough  to  permit 
the  traces  to  be  put  over  the  roller-bolts. 

The  outside  trace  is  first  put  on  its  roller-bolt,  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  turning  his  croup  away  from 
the  pole,  and  afterward  the  inner  trace.  In  unhar- 
nessing- the  inside  trace  is  taken  off  first. 

Since  the  pole-chains  keep  the  horses  somewhat 
close  to  the  pole,  the  distance  from  the  collar  to  the 
inner  roller-bolt  is  less  than  that  to  the  outer  one, 
and  with  traces  of  the  same  length  the  collar  will  be 
pulled  toward  the  outer  side,  and  will  bear  harder 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  neck,  sometimes  rubbing 
the  neck  at  that  spot.  To  obviate  this,  the  inner 
trace  should  be  shorter  by  one  hole  than  the  outer 
one.  The  usual  distance  apart  of  the  holes  in 
traces  (about  1  %  inch)  is  rather  an  over-correc- 
tion, but  it  brings  the  collar  more  nearly  right  than 
when  the  traces  are  of  the  same  length.  A  better 
way  of  making  the  correction  is  to  cover  the  inside 
roller-bolts  with  several  thicknesses  of  leather  to 
increase  their  diameter  and  thus  take  up  more  of 
the  length  of  the  trace.  The  inner  roller-bolts 
mioht  be  set  back  from  the  line  of  the  outer  ones 


CH.   XII 


PUTTING-TO 


251 


Fig.  125. 


about  an  inch,  which  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
difference  required.  It  is  still  better  to  have  move- 
able swingle-trees  (see  page  23).  The  leaders' 
traces  are  all  of  the  same  length  ;  the  lead-bars, 
being  moveable,  adapt  themselves  to  the  position 
of  the  collars. 

If  chain-end   traces   are   used,   they  must  be  put 
on   so   that  the   chain   passes   from 
the    outside  in,    as    shown    in    Fig 


125. 


After  the  traces  are  on  the  roller- 
bolts,  the  hook  of  the  pole-chain  is 
passed  through  the  kidney-link  ring,  so  as  to  bring 
out  the  chain  through  the  ring  from  the  side  next 
to  the  pole,  and  hooked  into  such  a  link  of  the 
chain,  down  near  the  pole-head,  as  will  make  the 
chain  the  proper  length  (see  Fig.  116).  For  very 
good  roads  there  should  be  two  links  to  play, — 
that  is,  the  chain  should  be  as  tight  as  though  it 
had  been  pulled  up  as  far  as  possible,  and  then  two 
links  let  out.  It  is  better  to  have  the  chain  too 
loose  than  too  tight.  In  hooking  the  chain,  the 
point  of  the  pole  should  not  be  lifted,  because  this 
will  bring  its  weight  on  the  horses'  necks.  For 
inferior  roads,  the  chains  should  be  looser,  as  few 
things  distress  horses  more  than  being  jerked  about 
by  the  coach,  in  consequence  of  poling  up  too 
tightly,  and  it  is  a  very  common  error.  One  ob- 
jection to  an  evener  in  place  of  a  stiff  splinter-bar 
is,   that  with  an   evener  the   guiding  of  the  vehicle 


252  PUTTING-TO  CH.  XII 

must  be  done  by  the  pole-chains,  which  must  be, 
therefore,  tight,  or  else  the  carriage  will  run  from 
one  side  of  the  road  to  the  other. 

Since  the  chain  of  a  public-coach  is  first  attached 
to  the  pole-head,  it  cannot  be  readily  put  on  with 
the  wrong  end  up,  but  this  may  be  done  with  the 
chains  of  a  drag  which  have  snap  hooks  at  both  ends. 
The  mistake  should  never  be  made  ~>f  putting  the 
hooks  into  the  kidney-link  ring,  as  is  frequently  done 
with  a  pair  of  horses  by  ignorant  coachmen.  When 
the  chain  is  attached  first  to  the  pole  and  then 
passed  through  the  ring,  a  man  standing  in  front 
of  the  horses,  can  pull  with  force  upon  the  end  of 
the  chain  and  get  it  tight.  If  it  is  already  in  the 
ring  and  must  then  be  passed  through  the  pole- 
head,  he  has  to  stand  under  the  horse's  head,  where 
he  has  no  pull  upon  the  chain,  and  where  he  is 
beslobbered  by  the  horse. 

The  wheelers'  coupling-reins  then  should  be 
buckled  to  the  bits. 

The  leaders  should  be  brought  to  their  places  ; 
their  traces  hooked  on,  the  outer  ones  first ;  and 
their  coupling-reins  buckled  to  the  bits.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  horse  which  carries  his  head  the 
higher  has  his  rein  on  top  of  the  other  coupling- 
rein,  or  else  the  horse  which  carries  his  head  low 
will  be  continually  pressing  with  his  rein  upon  the 
mouth  of  the  other  horse  and  worrying  him.  For 
the  same  reason,  a  ring  should  never  be  put  upon 
the  coupling-reins  where  they  cross. 


CH.  XII 


PUTTING-TO 


253 


The  lead-rein  must  then  be  seized  by  the  end 
and  passed  through  the  throat-latch  ring  and  pad- 
terret  of  the  wheeler  (the  loop  of  the  wheel-rein 
having  been  first  taken  off  the  pad-terret),  and  the 
near  side  reins  thrown  across  the  wheelers'  backs 
to  the  off  side  (see  page  248).  If  the  lead-rein  has 
been  properly  laid  in  the  lead  horse's  terrets  (see 
Plate  XXV.),  it  will  pull  out  freely  when  drawn  by 
its  end. 

The  leaders'  inside  traces  may  be  hooked  straight 
to  their  respective  bars,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  126,  or 


~y 


=^j 


ABC 

Fig.  126. 

they  may  be  crossed,  or  lapped.  When  they  are 
crossed,  both  of  the  near  horse's  traces  go  to  the 
near  ends  of  the  lead-bars  and  the  off  horse's  traces 
to  the  off  ends,  as  at  B,  which  equalises  the  draught 
of  the  horses,  if  one  is  more  free  than  the  other. 
It  cannot  be  recommended,  because  it  is  better  to 
make  the  horses  work  evenly  by  proper  bitting  and 
coupling.  For  the  same  reason,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  have  either  a  link  or  a  chain  between  the  bars. 
In  lapping,  one  horse  is  hooked  up  straight, — that 


254  PUTTING-TO  CH.   XII 

is,  with  both  his  traces  to  his  own  bar, — and  the 
inside  trace  of  the  other  horse  is  passed  inside  of 
the  first  horse's  trace  and  hooked  to  its  proper  bar 
(Fig.  126,  C).  Lapping  serves  two  purposes:  it 
prevents  the  leaders  from  pulling  apart,  and  it  keeps 
the  inside  traces  away  from  the  sides  of  the  horses, 
so  that  in  muddy  weather  they  will  not  chafe  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  if  a  leader  kicks  over  his  inside  trace  he 
gets  his  leg  over  both  traces,  or  if  one  horse  falls  it 
is  more  difficult  to  disentangle  the  pair. 

For  park  driving  it  looks  better  to  have  the  traces 
straight ;   neither  crossed  nor  lapped. 

After  all  the  reins  are  on  the  off  side,  they  should 
be  pulled  through  the  terrets  to  about  the  right 
length,  straightened,  so  that  there  are  no  twists  in 
them,  the  ends  buckled,  and  the  loop,  or  bight, 
drawn  through  above  the  trace  and  tug-buckle  from 
the  front  toward  the  back,  leaving  the  points  in  front 
(Fig.  127). 

The  whip  should  then  be  caught  up  with  a  double- 
thong,  and  laid  across  the  backs  of  the  wheelers, 
behind  the  pads  and  quite  well  over  toward  the 
near  side,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  handpiece  of  the 
whip  will  not  cause  it  to  fall  off.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  pull  the  butt  of  the  whip  backward  between  the 
two  parts  of  the  back-strap,  which  will  keep  it  in 
place. 

If  the  thong  of  the  whip,  by  touching  his  side, 
worries  the  near  wheeler,  the  whip  may  be  laid  from 
front  to  back  across  the  roof-seats  on  the  off  side, 


CH.   XII  STABLE-SHUTTERS  255 

where  the  coachman  can  easily  reach  it  after  he  is  in 
his  seat.  It  should  not  be  put  in  the  whip-socket ; 
the  ceiling  of  a  coach-house  is  rarely  high  enough  to 
permit  it,  without  bending  or  breaking  the  whip. 


Fig.  127. 

In  driving  from  the  stable  to  the  place  of  starting, 
the  stable-shutters  should  be  up,  that  is,  closed. 

In  a  public-coach  they  should  be  let  down  upon 
arriving  at  the  place  of  starting.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  whether  they  should  be  opened 


256  BEARING-REIN  CH.  XII 

or  should  be  kept  closed  in  the  case  of  a  drag,  but 
it  is  more  in  conformity  with  road  practice  to  let 
them  down  and  to  pull  up  the  glass,  which  keeps 
the  dust  from  the  inside  of  the  coach.  It  is  not, 
perhaps,  a  matter  of  much  importance,  except  so 
far  as  uniformity  is  desirable  at  Meets,  and  '  stable- 
shutters  down'  is  the  rule  at  the  Meets  of  The 
Coaching  Club  at  New  York. 

At  the  New  York  Meets,  since  the  rule  is  to  have 
a  front  load  only,  the  grooms  are  in  the  rumble,  and 
there  is  no  one  inside  ;  at  the  London  Meets  there 
is  no  rule  as  to  loads,  and  the  coach  is  sometimes 
full  on  top  and  the  grooms  are  inside  ;  in  which  case 
the  windows  must  be  open,  although  it  is  stated  by 
an  Officer  of  one  of  the  London  Clubs  that  it  is 
understood  that  the  stable-shutters  should  be  closed. 

In  driving  to  races,  picnics,  and  the  like,  the 
grooms  are  frequently  inside,  or  there  is  an  extra 
servant  there  for  serving  lunch,  in  which  case  the 
windows  must  be  open. 

For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  therefore,  it  seems 
better  to  have  the  windows  open  ;  with  the  glass  up 
or  down  as  may  be  desired.  When  exercising,  or 
trying  horses,  or  giving  lessons,  there  seems  to  be 
a  certain  propriety  in  having  the  stable-shutters 
closed. 

BEARING-REIN 

There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  among 
coachmen  as  to  the  use  of  bearing-reins,  and  while 
for  road  work,   either  public   or  private,   they  have 


CH.   XII  BEARING-REIN  257 

been  generally  abandoned,  they  are  by  many  still 
thought  to  be  necessary  for  park  driving,  and  espe- 
cially at  Meets.  Where  uniformity  in  the  appearance 
of  a  team  is  important,  as  at  formal  Coaching  Meets, 
the  use  of  bearing-reins  certainly  ensures  uniformity 
of  position  of  the  horses'  heads,  since  some  horses, 
when  standing,  drop  their  heads,  and  may  even 
catch  their  bridles  on  the  pole-head,  and  on  such 
occasions  the  use  of  bearing-reins,  if  they  are  ad- 
justed with  intelligence,  may  be  excused.  In  this 
connection  a  consideration  of  their  action  is  not 
unimportant. 

In  the  first  place,  the  bearing-rein  should  always 
have  its  own  snaffle-bit,  independent  of  the  driving- 
bit,  to  which  it  should  never  be  attached,  since  it 
would  seriously  interfere  with  the  proper  action  of 
the  drivino-bit. 

In  what  is  usually  called  the  'bit  and  bridoon,'  or 
'double  bridle,'  for  a  saddle-horse,  the  functions  of 
the  two  bits  are  essentially  different.  The  bit,  which 
has  branches  of  some  length  and  a  curb-chain,  has 
its  own  head-piece  and  its  own  rein, — the  curb-rein. 
The  bridoon,  which  is  a  plain  snaffle,  is  attached  to 
its  own  head-stall,  and  placed  high  in  the  horse's 
mouth  ;  it  has  its  own  rein, — the  snaffle-rein. 

The  snaffle-reins  are  held,  by  most  horsemen,  on 
top  of  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  or,  in  handling 
a  green  horse,  separately  in  the  right  hand,  and  are 
used  to  raise  the  horse's  head  ;  in  some  cases  they 
are   held   so   hicrh   as   to   make   their  action    almost 

17 


258  BEARING-REIN  CH.   XII 

exactly  like  that  of  a  harness  bearing-rein.  The 
curb-reins  are  on  the  lower  finders  of  the  left  hand, 
and  are  used  to  restrain  the  horse,  and  to  bring  his 
head  in,  the  bit  being  put  as  low  in  the  mouth  as 
possible  without  touching  the  tusks.  By  a  judicious 
use  of  the  two  bits  the  horse's  head  can  be  '  placed' 
in  the  position  which  gives  the  greatest  control  over 
the  animal,  and  ensures  what  is  usually  called  '  light- 
ness of  mouth,'  which  is,  in  most  cases,  a  matter  of 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  jaw,  and  not  of  the  bars 
of  the  mouth. 

A  bearing-rein  and  a  driving  curb-bit,  both  prop- 
erly adjusted,  will,  to  some  extent,  imitate  the 
action  of  the  two  bits  of  the  saddle-horse,  except 
that  there  is  no  elasticity  in  the  bearing-rein  such 
as  there  is  in  the  rider's  hand.  The  position  of  the 
horse's  head  should  be  carefully  studied,  and  the 
bearing-rein  buckled  at  such  a  length  as  will  prevent 
the  horse  from  dropping  his  head  too  low,  and  at  the 
same  time  will  not  hold  the  head  in  a  constrained 
position.  This  will  require  judgement,  as  a  bearing- 
rein  which  seems  tia-ht  when  the  horse  is  standing 
still,  will  frequently  be  entirely  too  slack  when  he 
is  moving.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  it  should 
be  always  somewhat  slack  when  the  horse  is  in 
motion.  With  this  rein  properly  adjusted,  with  the 
driving-bit  as  low  as  possible  in  the  mouth,  and  with 
the  curb-chain  of  such  a  length  that  the  branch  of 
the  bit,  when  pulled  upon  by  the  rein,  will  come 
back    to    a    position    about    half-way    between    the 


CH.  XII  BEARING-REIN  259 

vertical  and  the  horizontal  directions,  the  conditions 
will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  similar  to  those  of  a 
saddle-horse,  and,  with  a  good  hand,  something  of 
the  same  effects  ought  to  be  obtained. 

As  is  described  in  Chapter  XV.,  Article  on 
'  Bitting- '  the  best  results  with  a  harness-horse  are 
obtained  when  the  horse  has  been  already  carefully 
handled  on  foot,  and  the  flexions,  at  least  partially 
executed,  so  that  the  action  of  the  two  bits  in 
driving  will  resemble  that  of  the  riding  bridle.  If 
adjusted  and  used  in  this  way,  the  bearing-rein  may 
be  considered  unobjectionable,  and  even  useful,  for 
parade  purposes  and  in  the  show  ring  ;  under  other 
circumstances,  and  in  any  but  the  very  best  hands, 
it  is  better  dispensed  with. 

On  the  road,  and  especially  in  going  up-hill, 
horses  work  much  better  with  their  heads  free  ;  at 
any  moderate  pace  and  with  a  heavy  load  a  horse 
throws  his  weight  forward  into  the  collar  and  puts 
down  his  head,  a  fact  recognised  in  some  countries 
in  the  practice  of  tying  down  a  horse's  head,  from 
the  notion  that  it  adds  to  his  power  for  draught. 
On  a  level,  hard  road  with  a  light  load,  a  horse  does 
not  require  to  have  his  body  thrown  forward,  and 
can  assume  the  gathered  position,  with  head  up  and 
in,  and  with  hind  legs  under  him,  a  position  with 
which  the  bearing-rein  does  not  interfere. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  a  very  tight 
bearing-rein  which  keeps  the  head  constrained,  and 
elevated  above  a  natural  position,  is  to  be  strongly 


2  60  BEARING-REIN  CH.  XII 

condemned,  but  some  horses  have  a  habit  of  putting 
their  heads  down  and  boring  on  the  bit  so  as  to  be 
very  fatiguing  to  the  coachman. 

On  such  a  horse,  it  is  well  to  put  a  bearing-rein, 
and  let  him  pull  on  his  own  tail,  instead  of  on  the 
arms  of  the  coachman  ;  but,  if  he  is  to  be  kept  in 
the  team,  he  should,  if  possible,  be  broken  of  the 
habit  by  changing  his  bit,  or  by  such  mouthing  and 
handling  as  the  skill  of  his  owner  permits. 

One  of  the  reasons  for  using  bearing-reins  on 
parade  occasions,  is,  that  many  teams  which  go 
pleasantly  enough  on  the  road,  pull  uncomfortably 
when  being  driven  close  behind  another  coach,  or 
when  excited  by  the  continual  stopping  and  start- 
ing, unavoidable  in  crowds  or  at  such  places  as  the 
entrance  to  a  race-course.  In  such  cases,  bearing- 
reins  will  save  the  coachman  much  annoyance  and 
fatigue ;  but  it  must  be  said  that  a  team  which 
will  do  all  this  kind  of  work,  and  look  stylish,  with 
heads  in  the  proper  position,  without  bearing-reins, 
is  a  better  team  and  pays  a  higher  compliment 
to  the  coachman's  hand,  than  one  which  requires 
them. 

The  bearing-rein  will  in  many  cases  prevent  a 
horse  from  kicking,  which  he  will  not  usually  do 
unless  he  can  get  his  head  down.  As  to  the  bear- 
ing-rein keeping  a  horse  from  falling,  it  is  entirely 
impossible  that  it  should  do  so  in  any  sense  of  sup- 
porting him  ;  although  as  far  as  it  assists  in  gath- 
ering him  and  keeping  his  hind  legs  under  him,  it 


CH.  XII  BEARING-REIN  26l 

may  have  a  useful  effect  with  a  horse  that  is  inclined 
to  go  in  a  slovenly  way. 

On  a  journey,  or  in  driving  a  strange  team  without 
bearing-reins,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  in  the  coach 
at  least  one  bearing-rein  with  its  proper  bit,  to  be 
slipped  on  a  troublesome  horse  if  necessary,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  wise  to  have  centre-hooks  on  the 
pads  of  all  harness,  even  if  they  are  not  habitually 
used.  In  the  absence  of  the  centre-hook,  the  rein 
can  be  attached  to  the  pad  by  a  short  strap,  such  as 
should  be  always  carried  among  the  spare  articles. 
If  bearing-reins  are  used,  the  lead-harness  must,  of 
course,  have  cruppers. 

As  to  appearance,  the  less  leather  there  is  about 
a  horse's  neck  the  better ;  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  short-necked  horses. 

In  nearly  all  cases,  a  properly  adjusted  bearing- 
rein  will  be  somewhat  slack  when  the  horse  is 
moving,  and  it  will  shake  about  in  an  unseemly 
way,  noticeable  from  the  top  of  the  coach,  if  not 
from  the  ground  ;  which  is  the  reason  for  having 
the  housing-straps  formerly  used. 

Bearing-reins  are  made  in  two  ways,  as  already 
described  and  as  shown  in  Fig.  93.  It  is  sometimes 
considered  that  the  double,  or  pulley-rein,  is  easier 
for  the  horse,  because  the  bit  plays  backward  and 
forward  upon  the  round  part  of  the  rein  when  the 
horse  tosses  his  head,  but  it  is  much  heavier  and 
more  complicated  than  the  single  rein,  which,  in  my 
opinion,  is  to  be  preferred  for  its  simplicity. 


262  BEARING-REIN  CH.    XII 

An  objection  to  the  pulley-rein  is,  that  a  careless 
man  can  exert  twice  the  power  in  reining-  up  the 
horse  with  it,  that  he  can  with  the  single  rein. 

Bridles  sometimes  have  a  light  strap,  with  a  small 
snap-hook  on  the  lower  end,  sewed  under  the  ro- 
sette, to  hold  the  bit  of  the  single  bearine-rein, 
which  will  drop  out  of  the  horse's  mouth  when  the 
rein  is  not  hooked  to  the  centre-hook. 

That  instrument  of  torture,  the  overdraw-check 
(the  '  Kemble  Jackson'),  while  it  may  be  useful,  when 
judiciously  applied,  in  getting  the  highest  speed  out 
of  a  trotting  horse  by  keeping  his  head  high  and 
his  breathing  organs  unobstructed,  has  never  been 
proposed  for  any  four-in-hand  team,  and,  except  on 
a  trotter,  is  seen  only  on  the  horses  of  careless  or 
ignorant  owners.  The  star-gazing  position  of  the 
head  which  it  enforces,  should  alone  be  sufficient 
to  prevent  its  use. 

According  to  Bracey  Clarke  and  other  authori- 
ties, the  bearing-rein  was  little  used  until  after  1800, 
and  by  1835  it  began  to  go  out  of  fashion  on  the 
public-coaches. 

Cracknell,  who  drove  a  fast  coach  on  the  London 
and  Birmingham  road  about  the  latter  date,  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  first  to  give  it  up,  and,  in  so 
doing,  to  have  brought  upon  himself  the  displeasure 
of  his  proprietor,  Mr  Chaplin,  who  considered  the 
practice  of  driving  without  it  to  be  dangerous.* 

*  CORBETT,   p.   239. 


CH.  XII  COUPLING  263 

In  the  coaching  prints  of  the  first  part  of  this 
century  the  bearing-rein  is  always  shown,  but  it  is 
not  found  in  those  previous  to  1800. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said,  that  all  coachmen 
should  have  their  attention  called  to  the  abuses  of 
the  bearing-rein  and  to  the  serious  pain  and  dis- 
comfort resulting  to  a  horse  from  having  it  too 
tight,  although  it  must  be  noted,  that  these  abuses 
are  confined  almost  entirely  to  pairs  and  single 
horses,  a  subject  with  which  we  are  not  at  present 
dealing. 

If  bearing-reins  are  not  used,  the  coachman  must 
always  keep  his  eye  on  his  wheelers  when  they  are 
standing  still,  or  one  of  them  may  drop  his  head 
and,  getting  his  bit  caught  on  the  pole-head,  pull 
off  his  bridle.  For  this  reason  the  bearino-rein  is 
not  out  of  place  on  a  pair  used  for  shopping  or 
visiting,  but  it  should  be  loose. 

In  this  connection,  Mr  Flower's  admirable  pam- 
phlets on  Bits  and  Bearing  Reins  may  be  recom- 
mended to  the  attention  of  all  horsemen. 

COUPLING 

In  all  harness,  the  outside  rein,  usually  called  the 
draught-rein,  runs  from  the  hand  to  the  outer  side 
of  each  horse's  bit.  In  some  rude  farm  harness  the 
inner  sides  of  the  bits  are  attached  to  each  other 
by  a  short  rein,  which  couples  the  horses  together, 
so  that  when  one  horse  is  pulled  to  one  side  he 
leads  the  other  with  him.     This  is  obviously  a  crude 


264  COUPLING  CH.   XII 

arrangement,  serving  only  to  guide  the  horses,  but 
not  to  restrain  them. 

In  better  harness,  therefore,  each  draught-rein  has 
attached  to  it,  a  rein  which  passes  to  the  bit  of  the 
other  horse,  so  that  a  pull  on  the  off  side  rein,  for 
instance,  will  be  communicated  to  the  off  side  of 
each  horse's  mouth.  It  is  obvious  that  to  do  this 
evenly,  the  inside,  or  coupling-rein  must  have  a  cer- 
tain definite  length  from  the  bit  to  the  point  at 
which  it  is  buckled  to  the  draught-rein.  Owing-  to 
its  crossing  over  between  the  horses,  the  coupling- 
rein  must  be  longer  than  that  part  of  the  draught- 
rein  which  is  in  front  of  the  coupling-buckle,  or 
else  the  horses'  heads  will  be  brought  too  near  to- 
gether. Usually,  with  horses  of  the  same  size,  and 
at  the  proper  distance  apart,  the  coupling-rein  will 
be  four  inches  longer  than  the  draught-rein  for 
the  leaders,  and  five  or  six  inches  longer  for  the 
wheelers  ;  and,  if  the  saddler  has  made  the  reins 
properly,  the  coupling-buckle  will  then  be  in  the 
middle  hole  of  the  fifteen  holes  which  are  punched 
in  the  draught-rein.  If  the  horses,  when  driven  in 
this  way,  are  found  to  be  too  far  apart,  the  taking 
up  of  each  coupling-rein  one  or  two  holes  shorter  on 
each  draught-rein  will  bring  them  nearer  together, 
supposing  always  that  the  horses  are  of  the  same 
size  and  that  they  hold  their  heads  alike. 

On  driving  them,  however,  it  will  be  very  likely 
found  that  one  of  the  horses  holds  his  head  in,  with 
his  neck  bent,  and  the  other  holds  his  head  out  and 


CH.  XII  COUPLING  265 

forward.  The  coupling-rein  of  the  former  will  be, 
therefore,  slack,  and  the  horse  being  less  restrained, 
will  go  away  from  the  pole  until  his  inside  rein  be- 
comes tight.  To  counteract  this,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  shorten,  or  take  up  his  coupling,  remember- 
ing always  that  his  coupling  is  that  which  goes  from 
his  bit  to  the  draught-rein  of  the  other  horse. 

It  may  also  happen  that  one  horse  is  more  eager 
or  free,  than  the  other,  and  will  be  too  far  ahead  ;  in 
which  case  the  taking  up  of  his  coupling  will  bring 
him  back, — that  is,  it  will  draw  more  tightly  on  his 
bit  and  restrain  him. 

In  both  cases,  however,  the  shortening  of  the 
coupling-rein  will  bring  the  horses'  heads  nearer 
together  ;  and,  if  their  distance  apart  was  originally 
correct  and  is  to  be  maintained,  whatever  is  taken 
up  in  one  coupling  must  be  let  out  in  the  other. 

This  is  shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  128),  where  the 
relative  distances  are  exaggerated  to  show  the  action 
more  clearly. 


N       N' 
Fig.    128. 


When  the  horses  are  working  exactly  alike,  the 
reins  are  arranged  as  shown  by  the  black  lines  ;  A 


266  COUPLING  CH.  XII 

and  B  are  the  two  sides  of  the  off  horse's  bit,  C  and 
D  those  of  the  near  horse.  The  drauofht-reins  AM 
and  DN  run  straight  to  the  coachman's  hand.  The 
coupling-reins  are  BN  and  CM,  buckled  to  the 
draught-reins  at  N  and  M. 

Now,  if  the  off  horse  bends  his  neck  so  as  to 
bring  his  head  nearer  to  his  body,  both  the  reins 
which  run  to  his  bit  will  be  too  slack,  and  he  will 
run  forward  and  do  more  than  his  share  of  the 
work,  while  the  near  horse  is  held  back.  To 
prevent  this,  the  off  horse's  coupling-rein  BX  is 
shortened  by  running  it  up  the  draught-rein  to  X', 
the  last  hole,  until  it  comes  just  tight  to  the  bit ; 
but  this  obviously  leaves  the  off  draught-rein  AM, 
as  slack  as  it  was  before,  so  that  the  coachman  has 
to  draw  his  hand  back  to  bring  it  to  bear  upon  the 
bit  at  A'.  In  so  doing,  however,  he  draws  back  the 
coupling-rein  CM,  and  pulls  the  head  of  the  near 
horse  to  the  inside.  To  prevent  this,  the  coupling- 
rein  CM  must  be  let  out  on  its  draught-rein  exactly 
as  much  as  the  other  coupling-rein  has  been  taken 
up,  which  is  equivalent  to  pulling  back  the  draught- 
rein,  whereupon  the  coupling-reins  will  have  the 
positions  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  with  the  buckle 
of  C  rein  in  the  first  hole,  and  all  the  reins  will  act 
evenly  on  both  horses,  notwithstanding  that  the 
mouth  and  bit  of  the  off  horse  is  nearer  to  the 
coachman's  hand  than  that  of  the  near  horse. 

If  the  horses  are  too  far  apart,  but  otherwise  are ' 
working   evenly,   the  coupling-reins  must  be  short- 


CH.  XII  COUPLING  267 

ened  equally  ;  or  lengthened  equally  if  they  are  too 
near  together. 

The  fact  that  a  horse,  when  he  holds  his  head  in, 
and  curves  his  neck,  is  thereby  practically  lengthen- 
ing his  rein  and  consequently  doing  more  than  his 
share  of  the  work,  must  be  carefully  remembered  ; 
simple  as  it  appears,  it  is  not  always  noticed  by  the 
coachman. 

Reins  are  frequently  made  with  three  holes  in 
the  inside  billet,  or  in  both  billets,  the  object  being 
to  prevent  wear  by  changing  the  places  where  the 
bit  touches  them  (see  Article  on  Reins,  in  the 
Chapter  on  Harness).  These  holes  can  be  used  to 
alter  the  length  of  the  coupling-rein,  and  some  coach- 
men seem  to  think  that  there  is  a  difference  between 
shortening  it  in  this  way  and  in  moving  the  buckle 
up  the  draught-rein.  A  little  reflection  will  show, 
however,  that  it  is  only  a  question  of  the  distance 
between  the  part  of  the  draught-rein  where  the 
coupling-rein  is  attached,  and  the  bit,  and  that  it  is 
perfectly  immaterial  whether  this  distance  is  length- 
ened or  shortened  at  one  end  or  the  other,  of  the 
coupling-rein.  It  is  better  to  have  only  one  hole  in 
the  billet ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  rarely  changed 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  wear,  and  if  there  is 
more  than  one  hole  and  the  billet  is  buckled  in  the 
wrong  one,  the  coupling  is  thereby  changed  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  coachman.  A  renewal  of  the 
billets  when  they  show  the  slightest  sign  of  wear  is 
the   best    precaution,    and   a   most    important    one  ; 


268  COUPLING  CH.  XII 

nothing-  can   be   more  dangerous   than  a  damaged 
rein. 

In  a  coach  team,  the  wheelers  should  be  coupled 
far  enough  apart  to  enable  them  to  travel  parallel 
to  the  pole  and  not  to  be  pulled  in  with  their  heads 
too  near  together,  but  since  they  are  kept  in  a  some- 
what fixed  position  by  the  pole-chains,  care  must 
be  taken  that  their  coupling-reins  are  short  enough 
to  make  the  bits  bear  evenly  on  both  sides  of  their 
mouths  ;  it  is  quite  possible  for  the  coupling-reins  to 
be  so  long  that  the  strain  will  be  almost  entirely 
on  the  draught-reins.  This  will  not  happen  with 
the  leaders,  because  not  being  held  together  ex- 
cept by  the  reins,  they  will  spread  as  wide  apart  as 
the  reins  permit. 

Leaders  should  have  their  couplings  short  and  be 
brought  somewhat  close  together,  in  which  position 
they  look  much  better  and  work  just  as  well  ;  at  the 
same  time,  they  should  not  be  driven  with  their 
heads  almost  touching,  as  is  sometimes  seen.  If 
their  coupling-reins  are  long  and  the  horses  move 
close  up  against  each  other,  the  inside  reins,  be- 
coming thereby  slack,  will  not  command  them 
quickly  in  case  of  necessity.  On  bad  roads,  in  hot 
weather,  or  for  slow,  heavy  work  up-hill,  they  should 
be  further  apart. 

Although  what  may  be  called  the  geometrical 
principles  of  the  coupling-reins,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram,  are  simple  enough,  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
perience and  judgement  is  required  to  adjust  them 


CH.  XII  COUPLING  •  269 

to  the  best  advantage,  and  the  lack  of  such  judge- 
ment is  the  weakest  point  of  many  coachmen. 

Ordinarily,  the  horse  that  is  the  more  eager  and 
free  will  require  to  be  brought  back  by  his  rein,  but 
horses  have  minds  and  tempers  of  their  own,  and 
purely  mechanical  considerations  are  sometimes 
insufficient.  A  high-spirited  horse,  for  instance,  will 
be  fretted  by  being  restrained  and  by  seeing  his 
partner  a  few  inches  ahead  of  him  ;  if  his  coupling- 
rein  is  let  out  he  may  stop  pulling  on  the  bit  and 
go  pleasantly.  This  is  much  more  frequently  the 
remedy  than  the  inexperienced  coachman  imagines, 
and  is  always  worth  trying,  care  being  taken,  how- 
ever, that  the  horse  does  not  do  more  than  his 
share  of  work.  Of  course,  in  addition  to  changing 
the  couplings,  the  different  place  of  the  rein  in  the 
bit,  and  the  tightening  or  loosening  of  the  curb- 
chain,  discussed  in  the  Article  on  '  Bitting,'  in 
Chapter  XV.,  are  necessary  to  be  considered. 

It  seems  almost  needless  to  reiterate  remarks 
about  the  importance  of  the  couplings,  but  so  many 
teams  are  badly  put  together,  that  it  is  well  worth 
while  for  the  beginner  to  master  the  mechanism  of 
the  matter  thoroughly,  and  then  to  exercise  his 
common  sense  in  applying  his  knowledge.  A  team 
well  put  together  is  a  delight,  and  one  badly  put  to- 
gether cannot  be  well  driven  by  the  very  best  of 
coachmen. 

As  mentioned  in  the  Chapter  on  Harnessing  and 
on   Putting-to,  the  horse  which  carries  his  head  the 

o  3 


27O  BUCKLING    THE    REINS  CH.   XII 

lower  must  have  his  rein  undermath,  or  he  will 
be  continually  bearing-  on  the  rein  of  his  partner. 
The  same  horses  behave  differently  about  the  car- 
riage of  their  heads  on  different  days. 

Inasmuch  as  the  coachman  sits  on  the  right  side, 
the  near  horse's  coupling-rein  may  have  to  be  a 
hole  longer  than  that  of  the  off  horse. 

To  ensure  the  coupling  and  the  bitting  of  a  team 
being  correctly  done,  the  diagram  devised  by  Mr 
Tiffany  (Plate  XXVI.)  is  useful.  A  number  of 
blanks  can  be  printed  and  filled  up  as  occasion 
requires.  The  diagram  in  force  at  the  time  is 
posted  on  the  order-board  of  the  stable. 

BUCKLING    THE    REINS 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  reins  should  or 
should  not  be  buckled  together  at  their  ends  is 
frequently  discussed  among  coaching  men,  and  each 
practice  has  its  advocates. 

The  arguments  against  buckling  are  :  First,  that 
in  case  the  lead-bars  should  become  loose,  either 
throuo-h  the  breaking  of  the  pole-hook,  or  of  the 
eye  of  the  main-bar,  or  of  the  bar  itself,  the  lead- 
reins  may  be  pulled  out  of  the  hand,  and  if  buckled 
together  will  tear  off  the  pads  and  the  bridles  of 
the  wheel  horses.  Secondly,  that  an  appreciable 
amount  of  time  is  lost  at  a  change,  in  buckling-  the 
reins  before  getting  up.  and  that  they  must  be  un- 
buckled before  arriving  at  a  change. 

The  aro-ument  in  favour  of  buckling  is,  that  a  rein 


PLATE    XXVI. 


The  holes  for  the  buckles  are  counted  from  the  "bit  end  of  rein. 

NOTES 


NEAR  LEADER 

N9  25  3)loyLe, 


7 


<*>%>& 


OFF  LEADER 

N?   13  j2)-ud<^ 

10 tfl  %*&, 


NEAR  WHEELER 

N?  f  3)<ULcans 

CI  <*  farL 


'CIA. 


a 


OFF  WHEELER 

N?    10    2)(H>t<yXs 


a=o 


o 


Diagram  proposed  by  W.G.Tif&usy  Esq. 
for  noting  tlie  Bitting  and  Couplings  of  a  Team. 


CH.  XII  BUCKLING    THE    REINS  27 1 

may  slip  out  of  the  fingers  and  drop  off  of  the  foot- 
board beyond  recovery,  in  which  case  a  serious  ac- 
cident is  almost  inevitable.  It  is  also  suggested 
that  the  catching  of  the  lead-reins  in  the  pad-terrets 
might  check  the  leaders  sufficiently  to  permit  the 
guard  or  the  servants  to  get  to  their  heads  and  stop 
them,  and  that,  moreover,  a  coachman  has  no  right, 
if  he  can  prevent  it,  to  let  two  frightened  horses, 
with  the  bars  at  their  heels,  run  down  the  road  to 
the  danger  of  the  public. 

To  this  it  may  be  answered,  that  should  the  reins 
pull  the  harness  off  of  the  wheelers,  there  would  be 
four  frightened  and  unmanageable  horses  instead  of 
two.  It  seems  hardly  possible,  however,  that  the 
reins  could  tear  off  the  pads  and  still  remain  buckled, 
so  as  to  tear  off  the  bridles,  and  the  loss  of  the  pads 
would  not  render  the  wheelers  unmanageable. 

As  to  authorities  in  print :  all  appear  to  prefer 
buckling,  except  Corbett,  who  in  An  Old  CoacJi- 
maris  Chatter,  p.  245,  after  discussing  the  matter, 
says :  '  And  now,  gentle  readers,  I  leave  you  to 
'  take  your  choice,  premising  that,  for  myself,  I  lean 
'  to  unpinned  ribbons.' 

Reynardson  [Down  the  Road,  p.  186)  says:  '  For- 
1  merly  [that  is  up  to  about  1825]  all  reins  were  buck- 
'  led.  Gradually  it  became  the  fashion  not  to  buckle, 
'and  then  to  have  no  buckles,  on  fast  coaches.'  He 
ends  by  saying,  '  it  is  a  safe  plan  to  buckle.' 

'  NiMROD,'  in  his  Essay,  The  Road,  printed  in 
1832,  objects  strongly  to  the  practice  of  not  buckling, 


272  BUCKLING    THE    REINS  CH.  XII 

and  says  :  '  This  is  new,  and  it  is  a  mere  piece  of 
'affectation,  and  should  be  put  a  stop  to.'  Also: 
'  It  is  evident,  that  with  the  reins  unbuckled  at  the 
'  ends,  should  either  of  them  drop  out  of  his  hands, 
'all  command  of  his  team  is  aone.'  And  ao-ain  in 
his  Essays,  in  discussing  the  merits  of  short  and 
long  wheel-reins  :  *  '  In  quick  opposition  work  also, 
'  long  reins  are  the  best,  as  there  is  no  occasion  to 
'  buckle  them  until  the  coachman  is  up,  and  it  is 
'  immaterial  whether  they  are  buckled  at  all — a 
'  consideration  in  minute  and  half  time.  Indeed,  I 
'  know  one  or  two  swells  who  have  banished  the 
'  buckles  altogether  from  the  leaders',  as  well  as 
'  the  wheelers'  reins,  on  the  ground  of  their  being 
'  in  the  way  of  expeditious  changing  ;  but  this  must 
4  be  awkward  for  their  horse-keepers,  as  without 
'  the  buckles,  they  cannot  tell  the  near  from  the  off 
'  rein  when  harnessing  their  horses,  and  then  the 
'coupling-reins  would  be  as  often  wrong  as  right.' 

Leaving  the  reins  unbuckled  was  apparently  for 
the  purpose  of  shortening  the  time  required  to  make 
the  chancres. 

The  question  seems  to  be,  whether  it  is  more 
important  to  guard  against  the  consequences  of 
the  rein's  being  dropped  or  of  the  leaders'  breaking 
away.  There  is  certainly  much  more  chance  of 
the  former's  happening  than  of  the  latter.  The 
off  wheel-rein    may    easily    slip    out    of    the    hand, 

*  In  early  coaching  days  short  wheel-reins  were  used  (see  p.  229). 


CH.  XII  BUCKLING    THE    REINS  2JT, 

especially  in  cold  weather,  and  if  it  once  leaves  the 
finder  it  is  sure  to  pfo  overboard. 

The  weight  of  argument  and  experience  seems 
to  be  in  favour  of  bucklinp-  the  wheel-reins,  at  least. 
From  its  position  in  the  hand,  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  a  lead-rein  could  be  dropped.  If  the  reins 
are  to  be  buckled,  it  should  be  done  before  getting 
up,  since  it  is  at  the  moment  of  starting  that  the 
rein  is  the  most  liable  to  slip  away. 

I  long  ago  devised  a  way  of  satisfying  all  the 
conditions,  and  have  used  it  for  many  years.  It 
is  to  have  (see  Fig.  129)  the  usual  loop,  or  keeper, 
on  the  near  rein,  but  without 
any  buckle,  and  on  the  off 
rein  a  somewhat  long  point, 
with  a  hollow  cut  in  each 
edee  of  the  rein  behind  the 
point,  so  that  when  the  end  of  the  rein  (which  fits  as 
tightly  into  the  loop  as  will  permit  it  to  be  forced 
through)  is  once  in,  a  considerable  force  is  required 
to  pull  it  out,  and  it  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the 
same  as  if  buckled. 

If  a  rein  is  dropped,  it  cannot  get  away,  but  it 
will  be  released  by  a  strong  pull,  and  at  a  change 
the  reins  can  be  separated  by  a  single  jerk. 

This    device    has    the    still    greater    advantage, 

equally  important  in  driving  one  or  two  horses  as 

in   driving:   four,   that   should   the  driver  be  thrown 

off,  he  cannot  be  dragged  by  the  reins,  which  will 

immediately  come  apart. 

18 


1 

"  > 

^> 

c 

Fig. 

1 29. 

274  CH-  XIH 


CHAPTER   XIII 
DIFFERENT   ARRANGEMENTS    OF    HARNESS 

Tandem. — Since  tandem  driving  is  not  included  in 
the  plan  of  this  book,  and  is,  moreover,  fully  de- 
scribed in  Hints  to  Young  Tandem  Drivers,  and  in 
the  Badminton  volume  on  Driving,  only  the  mode 
of  harnessing  for  tandem  will  be  described.  The 
shaft  horse  has  the  usual  gig-harness,  with  the  ad- 
dition  of  rings  on  the  throat-latch  for  the  lead-reins 
to  pass  through,  and  pad-terrets  with  horizontal 
bars  across  their  centres  to  divide  the  lead-reins 
and  shaft-reins.  The  lead-harness  is  light,  and  the 
traces  are  long  enough  to  reach  to  the  tug-buckles 
of  the  shaft  horse,  these  buckles  having  eyes  on 
them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  118.  If  the  lead-traces 
are  hooked  to  the  points  of  the  shafts  there  is 
more  danger  of  the  leader's  pulling  the  shaft  horse 
down  in  turning,  than  when  they  are  hooked  to  the 
buckles. 

Lead- traces  should  not  be  extravagantly  long,  10 
ft.  4  in.  is  sufficient  ;  any  team  looks  better  and  is 
more  handy,  if  compact,  and,  should  the  leader  be- 
have badly,  the  longer  the  trace  the  more  likely  he 
is  to  get  his  leg  over  it.  Lady  Georgiaxa  Curzon, 
in  the  Badminton  volume  on  Driving,  describes  an 
arrangement    of    light    lead-bars,    which    seems    to 


CH.  XIII 


THREE    ABREAST 


275 


lessen    the    danger   of   his    so    doing.     The    leader 
should  have  a  hip  strap. 

The  question  which  is  the  more  difficult  to  drive, 
four  horses  or  a  tandem,  is  frequently  discussed ; 
almost  any  kind  of  a  horse  can  be  driven  in  a 
team,  but  a  tandem  leader  must  have  reasonably 
decent  manners,  or  he  will  be  impossible  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  more  strength  is  needed  to  drive  four 
horses  than  to  drive  two,  and  a  coach  can  be  up- 
set, whereas  a  cart  can  twist  about  in  almost  any 
space. 

The  position  so  frequently  described,  of  a  tandem 
leader's  turning  round  and  looking  the  driver  in  the 
face,  can  be  usually  corrected  by  backing  the  shaft 
horse  until  the  traces  become  straight  again. 

Since  the  handling  of  the  reins  is  much  the  same 
as  that  for  four  horses,  Tan- 
dem-driving is  not  a  bad  in- 
troduction to  Coaching. 

Three  Abreast. — Three 
horses  driven  abreast  in  the 
lead  require  the  arrange- 
ment of  bars  shown  in  Fig. 
35  ;  when  they  are  at  the  wheel,  their  traces  are 
attached  to  a  long  splinter-bar  which  has  six  roller- 
bolts.  The  best  way  of  running  the  reins  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1  30. 

In  the  South  of  Italy,  a  third  horse  is  often  used 
as  an  out-rigger  to  a  pair  ;  he  is  put  on  the  near  side, 


276 


SPIKE    OR    UNICORN 


CH.   XIII 


with  his  traces  attached  to  a  bar  which  is  lashed  to 
the  splinter-bar  (or  sometimes  to  the  foot-board)  of 
the  carriage.  He  has  one  forked  rein  which  serves 
to  restrain,  but  not  to  guide  him.  He  is  guided  by 
a  short  rein  running  from  his  bit  to  the  end  of  the 
pole. 

Three  horses  at  the  wheel  make  a  eood  team  for 
a  station  omnibus  ;  for  travelling  with  a  coach,  three 
on  the  lead  not  only  give  additional  power,  but  en- 
sure still  having  a  team  of  four  in  case  anything 
happens  to  one  of  the  horses.  It  is  a  favourite 
team  with  Swiss  and  Italian  vetturini  (Fig.  131),  but 
is  a  little  less  handy  in  sharp  turns  and  narrow 
places,  than  four  horses.  An  objection  to  this  ar- 
rangement of  three  horses  is,  that  in  warm  weather 
the  middle  horse  suffers  from  the  heat. 


Fig.  131. 

Spike  or  Unicorn. — It  may  be  sometimes  conve- 
nient to  drive  two  horses  at  the  wheel  and  a  single 
leader,  in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to  have  for  this 
leader  a  pair  of  long    reins    and  a  single  lead-bar 


CH.  XIII  SIX    HORSES  277 

with  the  eye  large  and  set  horizontally,  or  with  a 
regular  Q  ,  so  that  it  will  go  on  the  pole-hook  ;  all 
his  harness  is  the  same  as  that  of  one  of  the  leaders. 
The  long  reins  may  with  advantage  be  passed  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  wheelers'  bridles. 

Should  one  of  the  horses  of  a  team  of  four  give 
out,  thereby  forcing  the.  team  to  become  a  spike,  or 
unicorn,  the  single  lead-bars  should  be  taken  off  and 
the  leader's  traces  hooked  to  the  main-bar. 

If  the  hooks  of  the  main-bar  are  too  thick  to 
permit  the  cock-eyes  of  the  lead-traces  to  go  on 
them,  one  of  the  single-bars  must  be  used,  attached 
to  the  pole  hook  by  a  strap,  since  its  eye  is  turned 
the  wrong  way  to  go  on  the  hook. 

Six  Horses. — When  six  horses  are  put  to  a  coach 
in  three  pairs,  the  middle  pair  is  called  the  swing- 
pair.     This  designation  is  also  used  in  the  Artillery. 

The  harness  is  exactly  the  same  as  for  four  horses. 
The  lead-reins  pass  through  the  throat-latch  rings 
and  the  pad-terrets  of  the  swing  horses,  and  then 
through  those  of  the  wheel  horses  to  the  hand. 

The  swing-reins  run  exactly  as  do  the  lead-reins 
of  an  ordinary  team,  but  the  throat-latch  rings  on 
the  wheelers  must  be  doubled  to  take  the  additional 
reins,  those  from  the  leaders  going  on  top,  and  the 
wheel  pad-terrets  should  have  a  bar  across  them  to 
keep  the  lead-reins  and  swing-reins  apart. 

Either  a  pole  or  a  chain  may  be  used  to  connect 
the  lead  horses  to  the  coach. 


278  POSTING  CH.   XIII 

The  pole  has,  at  its  hind  end,  an  eye  which  goes 
on  the  main  pole-head  hook  under  the  lead-bars,  and 
at  its  front  end,  a  head,  or  crab,  of  the  usual  form, 
with  bars  to  which  the  leaders'  traces  are  attached. 
This  pole  should  be  much  lighter  than  the  main 
pole,  since  there  is  no  strain  upon  it,  except  the 
direct  pull,  and  the  bars  also  should  be  somewhat 
lighter,  half  the  weight  of  the  pole  and  all  the 
weight  of  the  bars  being  supported  by  the  necks 
of  the  swing  horses. 

An  alternative  similar  arrangement  consists  of  a 
light  chain  covered  with  leather,  or  a  rope,  like  that 
on  a  cock  horse  harness  (see  Plate  XXIV.),  instead 
of  a  pole,  with  lead-bars.  It  should  be  suspended 
by  a  chain,  or  straps,  from  the  collars  of  the  swing- 
pair,  and  the  leaders  when  at  rest  must  be  kept 
well  forward  to  prevent  the  bars  from  hanging 
down.  It  is  also  well  to  have  a  strap  from  one  tug- 
buckle  of  the  swin^  horses  to  the  other,  on  which 
this  chain  may  rest. 

The  swing  pole  or  chain  and  the  bars  may  be 
dispensed  with  altogether,  by  using  for  the  leaders 
lonof  traces  p-oino-  to  the  tusf-buckles  of  the  swingf- 

0000  o 

pair,  as  shown  in  Plate  VI. 

Posting. — In  posting,  the  near  horse  of  a  pair  is 
ridden  by  a  postilion,  who  leads  the  off  horse. *     The 

*  In  a  plate  published  by  Edw.  Orme,  Bond  St.,  London,  18 16, 
entitled  Paris  Diligence,  a  postilion,  on  the  near  wheeler,  is  driving 
three  leaders. 


CH.   XIII  POSTING  279 

off  side  harness  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  pair,  with 
the  exception  of  the  reins,  but  the  near  side  harness 
has  a  saddle  like  that  shown  in  the  plate  of  the 
cock  horse  harness. 

The  bridle,  collar,  and  traces  are  as  usual,  except 
that  a  long  trace  without  a  buckle  is  preferable  to 
the  ordinary  one,  on  account  of  its  not  making-  a 
lump  under  the  saddle-flap.  The  saddle  is  plain, 
and  has  an  iron  loop  on  the  tree  behind,  to  take 
the  back-strap,  which  must  be  shorter  than  in  an 
ordinary  harness. 

The  off,  or  'hand  horse,'  as  he  is  called,  from  the 
fact  that  he  is  led,  has  a  single  leading-rein,  which 
goes  to  the  near  side  of  his  bit,  and  a  short  rein 
from  the  off  side  of  the  bit  to  a  point  on  the  lead- 
ing-rein, about  fifteen  inches  from  the  bit ;  in  other 
words,  the  leading-rein  is  forked,  so  as  to  be  at- 
tached to  both  sides  of  the  bit ;  the  buckle  of 
the  short  piece  runs  on  the  main  rein,  in  order 
that  the  proportionate  lengths  of  the  forked  ends 
can  be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  an  equal  bearing 
on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  The  near  horse  has  a 
simple  rein  for  the  postilion,  like  that  of  a  riding 
bridle. 

If  four  horses  are  required  in  posting,  the  leading 
horses  are  harnessed  as  already  described  for  the 
wheelers,  except  that  the  traces  are  sufficiently  long 
to  reach  to  the  tug-buckles  of  the  wheelers  as  de- 
scribed on  page  237. 

Before  the  days  of  railways,  posting  was  the  best 


280  POSTING  CH.  XIII 

method  of  travelling  in  England  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent ;  there  is  an  interesting  description  of  it  by 
the  Duke  of  Beaufort  in  the  Badminton  volume  on 
Driving.  On  a  journey,  either  a  private  travelling 
carriage  belong-in Pf  to  the  traveller  was  used,  or  a 
vehicle  was  hired  from  a  postmaster.  In  England 
the  postmasters  were  usually  hotel-keepers,  and  not 
employed  by  the  Government,  except  in  some  cases, 
to  handle  the  mails,  the  horses  being  their  private 
property  ;  they  were  required,  however,  to  have  a 
license  and  to  put  up  a  sign  :  '  Licensed  to  Let  Post 
Horses.'  They  paid  a  duty  of  three  half-pence  per 
mile  for  each  horse  used,  and  there  was  an  elaborate 
system  by  which  the  toll-gate  keepers  checked  off 
this  duty. 

The  stages  varied  greatly  in  length,  but  the  dis- 
tances were  all  noted  in  the  posting  and  road-books, 
published  in  those  days.  The  charges  were  not  uni- 
form, but  were  from  sixpence  to  ninepence  a  mile, 
for  each  horse,  and  sixpence  for  the  post-boy,  which 
was  paid  him  at  the  end  of  the  stage,  where  he  was 
succeeded  by  a  new  boy. 

According  to  the  Penny  Cyclopadia,  1840  (Article 
Posting),  the  stages  at  that  date  were  from  8  to  1 2 
miles  in  populous  districts,  and  from  15  to  20  in 
others  ;  the  rate  of  speed  from  8  to  9  miles  an  hour  ; 
and  the  cost  of  a  pair,  with  fees  and  turnpikes 
amounted  to  about  22  pence  (44  cents)  per  mile, 
so  that  posting  with  four  horses,  double  the  cost  of 
a  pair,   was  an  expensive  way  of  travelling.     The 


CH.  XIII  POSTING    IN    FRANCE  28 1 

charge  was  the   same  whether  a  carriage  was   fur- 
nished or  not. 

On  frequented  roads,  some  one  was  usually  on 
the  watch  for  carriages  approaching  the  post  house, 
and  since  one  or  two  pairs  always  stood  ready  har- 
nessed, a  change  was  rapidly  effected.  The  speed 
was  frequently  ten  miles  an  hour,  but  depended, 
naturally,  upon  the  hurry  of  the  passenger  and  his 
liberality  to  the  post  boys. 

On  the  Continent,  in  France  for  instance,  the 
whole  system  was  under  the  control  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  a  book,  Livrc  de  Poste,  giving  a  map  of 
all  the  routes,  distances,  charges,  and  general  regu- 
lations, was  published  annually  by  the  Government 
Printing  Office.  The  right  to  furnish  horses  to 
travellers  by  relays  was  restricted  to  those  persons 
{maitres  de  poste)  commissioned  by  the  Govern- 
ment. 

The  charge  for  each  horse  was  2  francs  per 
10  kilometres,  equal  to  about  3%  pence  per  mile 
{6*4  cents).  One  franc  per  10  kilometres  was  estab- 
lished by  law  as  the  fee  for  each  postilion,  but  the 
custom  obtained,  and  was  recognised  by  the  author- 
ities, of  giving  twice  that  amount,  or  the  same  as 
for  each  horse,  31^  pence  per  mile. 

Somewhat  elaborate  regulations  were  contained 
in  the  book  as  to  the  number  of  horses  required 
for  certain  sizes  of  carriages,  and  the  number  of 
passengers  was  also  taken  into  account. 


282 


POSTING    IX    FRANCE 


CH.  XIII 


Tables  of  charges  based  upon  these  items  were 
given  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  computation,  for 
instance  : — 


Number  of 

i 

21    KlLOM. 

22    KlLOM. 

23    KlLOM. 

Horses. 

Postilions. 

4  at  2  francs. 

2  at  2  francs. 

25.20  francs.  I  26.40  francs. 

27.60  francs. 

One  person   additional 

Two  persons  additional 

28.35  francs. 
31.50  francs. 

29.70  francs. 
33.00  francs. 

31.05  francs. 
34.50  francs. 

On  certain  steep  portions  of  the  road  a  traveller 
was  required  to  take,  and  to  pay  for,  one  or  two 
extra  horses. 

Ordinarily  a  carriage  was  taken  by  the  post- 
horses,  only  on  the  main  road,  from  one  station  to 
another  ;  but  arrangements  could  be  made  to  go  off 
of  the  main  road  to  a  country-house  or  to  have 
horses  sent  there  to  take  the  carriage. 

In  a  town,  the  carriage  was  loaded  at  the  door, 
having  been  brought  round  by  men,  or  by  a  single 
horse,  a  short  time  before  the  hour  fixed  for  start- 
ing, at  which  hour  the  postilions  and  horses  ap- 
peared. 

The  regulations  required  that  postilions  should 
go  at  a  speed  of  not  less  than  from  6*^  to  8  miles  an 
hour,  depending  upon  the  road,  but  there  was  no 
upper  limit  of  speed  prescribed.  No  postilion  was 
allowed  to  pass  another  on  the  road,  except  when 
the  carriage  in  front  was  stopped  intentionally. 


CH.  XIII  DAUMONT  283 

Five  minutes  were  allowed  for  changes  in  the 
daytime,  and  a  quarter  of  an  hour  at  night. 

Plate  X.  gives  a  good  idea  of  French  posting,  and 
shows  the  dress  of  the  postilions,  with  the  heavy 
leather  boots  into  which  the  feet  were  slipped,  thin 
shoes  and  all,  at  the  moment  of  mounting. 

The  English  postilion  was  dressed  in  a  dark 
jacket  and  a  bright  waistcoat,  a  high,  white,  beaver 
hat,  breeches,  and  top-boots.  He  had  an  iron  guard 
strapped  on  the  outside  of  his  right  boot  to  save  his 
leg  from  being  bruised  by  the  pole. 

While  regular  posting  has  given  way,  in  England, 
to  travelling  by  rail,  there  are  still  a  few  job-masters 
in   London  who,  for  special  service,  provide  horses 
and  postilions,  harnessed  and  dressed,  in  the  regu 
lar  old-fashioned  style. 

Daumont. — When  four  horses,  ridden  by  two 
postilions  in  posting  fashion,  are  attached  to  a 
private  landau,  or  barouche  with  handsome  harness, 
the  equipage  is  called  a  Daumont,  or  a  la  Daumont. 
Thirty  years  ago,  it  was  not  an  uncommon  gala  turn- 
out, but  it  is  now  confined  to  royalties  on  occasions 
of  ceremony.  The  harnessing  is  precisely  the  same 
as  for  posting,  but  the  pole  of  the  carriage  is  usually 
of  iron  and  bent  down  in  the  middle  so  as  to  be 
below  the  leg  of  the  wheel  horse  postilion  to  avoid 
bruising  it. 

The  postilions  wear  round  caps  instead  of  hats. 
When  the  same  carriage  is    used  with   two  horses 


284  DAUMONT  CH.  xill 

instead    of    four,    the    equipage    is    called   a   Denii- 
Daumont. 

A  Demi-Daumont  is  a  handsome  'turn-out,'  and 
the  occupants  of  the  carriage  have  a  clear  view, 
unobstructed  by  servants  in  front  of  them. 

The  carriage  is  made,  of  course,  without  any 
driving-seat,  but,  for  full  dress,  there  is  a  rumble 
occupied  by  two  footmen. 

This  equipage  takes  its  name  from  the  Due 
d'Aumont,  a  French  leader  of  fashion,  both  before 
and  after  the  Revolution.  He  was  born  in  1762 
and  had  estates  near  Rouen,  where  he  had  superb 
stables,  fitted  up  with  mahogany,  marble,  and  Bohe- 
mian glass.  During  the  Restoration  he  introduced 
this  style  of  carriage.  La  Rousse  (Dictionnaire  Uni- 
versel  du  xixe",e  Slide,  article  '  Aumont'),  says  that 
the  usual  spelling  is  a  la  Daumont,  but  also,  en 
cV Aumont  and  en  Daumont.  Eugene  Sue  in  one  of 
his  novels,  writes  :  '  Je  demande  si  Ton  attellera  en 
grand' guides  ou  a  la  d'Aumont.' 


CH.   XIV  28  ! 


CHAPTER   XIV 

DRIVING 

Getting  up. — The  horses  having  been  put-to  (as 
described  in  Chapter  XII.)  and  the  coach  driven  to 
the  door,  or  ready  in  the  stable  yard,  the  coachman 
is  prepared  to  start. 

Before  getting  up  to  his  seat,  he  should  walk 
round  his  coach  and  horses,  beginning-  on  the  off 
side,  going  behind  the  coach  and  coming  forward  on 
the  near  side,  then  in  front  of  the  horses,  and  to  a 
position  abreast  of  the  off  wheeler.  While  doing 
this,  he  should  make  a  rapid  but  thorough  inspection 
of  coach,  horses,  and  harness,  to  see  that  every- 
thing is  right,  especially  noting  whether  the  reins 
are  buckled  to  the  bits  in  the  places  where  he  in- 
tends to  have  them,  and  whether  the  draught-reins 
are  outside,  since  sometimes  the  reins  are  turned 
over,  and  the  coupling-reins  are  put  outside.  If  the 
horses  are  in  for  the  first  time,  or  have  had  their 
places  changed,  or  if  the  harness  is  new,  this  in- 
spection is  all  the  more  necessary. 

Then,    standing   opposite   to   the   pad   of    the   off 
wheeler,   he  draws   the   reins    from   above   the   tug- 
buckle  (see  Fig.  127),  where  they  have  been  looped 
by  the  man  who  has  brought  the  coach  round,  or, 
if  the  coach  is  still  in  the  stable  yard,  by  the  groom 


2  86  GETTING    UP  CH.   XIV 

after  putting-to,  and  then  taking  the  near  lead-rein 
in  his  left  hand,  draws  it  until  it  comes  tight  from 
the  leader's  bit.  He  then  drops  his  hand,  slipping  it 
along  the  rein  until  his  arm  hangs  straight  down  by 
his  side.  He  draws  the  off  lead  rein  with  his  right 
hand  until  it  comes  tight,  and,  passing  it  into  the 
left  hand,  pulls  it  forward  with  the  right  until  the 
buckle  ends  of  the  rein  are  even  ;  this  makes  ex- 
actly the  proper  amount  of  slack  in  the  off  rein 
and  ensures  both  reins  being  of  the  same  length 
when  the  coachman  gets  on  the  box.  He  then 
passes  both  reins  into  his  right  hand,  holding  them 
at  the  same  point  at  which  his  left  hand  grasped 
them.  He  does  precisely  the  same  thing  with  the 
wheel-reins,  and  holds  them  all  in  his  right  hand  in 
the  proper  fingers,  that  is,  with  the  near  lead-rein 
on  top  of  his  first  finger,  the  off  lead-rein  and  the 
near  wheel-rein  between  the  first  and  second  fingers, 
lead  on  top,  and  the  off  wheel  rein  between  the 
second  and  third  fingers. 

This  may  be  also  done  more  simply  by  taking 
all  the  reins  in  the  left  hand  and  drawing  them  as 
tight  as  the  shortest  will  permit,  then  tightening  the 
others  in  succession,  and  finally  pulling  out  the  off 
reins  ten  or  twelve  inches,  after  which  they  are 
passed  properly  divided,  into  the  right  hand. 

If  the  reins  are  of  the  proper  length,  as  noted  on 
page  226,  the  ends  will  not  hang  down  too  far  behind 
the  hand.  If  they  are  longer  than  there  specified, 
the  ends  should  be  thrown  over  the  right  arm,  from 


CH.  XIV  GETTING    UP  287 

left  to  right,  to  prevent  them  from  catching  on  the 
roller-bolt  in  getting  up. 

These  instructions  may  seem  somewhat  minute, 
but  none  too  minute  for  a  beginner,  who  will  find 
the  first  method  a  good  one  ;  the  second  method 
may  be  used  later  ;  but  the  coachman  should  adopt 
a  uniform  way  of  taking  up  his  reins,  so  that  he 
can  always  do  it  quickly  and  neatly,  and  not  stand 
fumbling  with  them  in  an  uncertain  way  ;  and  he 
should  always  so  take  them  that  he  will  have  little 
to  do  when  he  o-ets  on  fa^  box 

An  expert  can  judge,  at  first  sight,  pretty  fairly 
of  a  coachman  by  the  way  he  gets  up. 

If  the  reins  have  been  carefully  put  in  their 
place  above  the  tug-buckle  (Fig.  127)  and  have  not 
slipped,  they  can  be  taken  out  ready  to  go  into 
the  fingers  without  in  any  way  changing  them  ; 
when  the  coachman  notices  that  they  have  been  so 
placed,  he  can  take  them  up  instantly,  and  neatly. 
This  is  a  reason  for  tuckine  the  reins  into  their 
place  from  the  front  backward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127, 
since  they  remain  there  more  securely  than  when 
merely  pushed  through  from  the  back. 

When  the  coachman  has  the  reins  in  his  right  hand 
with  the  same  hand  he  takes  the  whip  (which  has 
been  lying  on  the  wheelers'  backs,  see  p.  254),  steps 
back,  puts  his  left  foot  on  the  hub  of  the  wheel,  his 
right  foot  on  the  roller-bolt,  his  left  on  the  step,  and 
his  right  on  the  foot-board,  using  his  left  hand  to  help 
himself  and  keeping  his  right  arm  straight  down. 


2  88  GETTING    UP  CH.   XIV 

The  moment  that  he  reaches  the  foot-board  he 
should  sit  down,  but,  if  he  is  driving  a  public-coach, 
before  doing-  so,  and  while  he  is  partly  facing  his 
passengers,  he  should  raise  his  hat  slightly  to  them. 
It  is  awkward  to  remain  standing  while  shifting  the 
reins  to  the  left  hand,  and  there  is  a  risk  of  being 
thrown  off  of  the  box.  On  a  public-coach,  the  coach- 
man should  not  get  up  until  within  a  minute  of  the 
time  of  starting-. 

As  soon  as  he  takes  his  seat  on  the  cushion,  he 
passes  the  reins  to  his  left  hand  in  the  same  order 
in  which  he  had  them  in  his  right.  He  catches  up 
his  whip,  if  it  has  become  unwound,  and  arranges 
the  driving-apron.  He  then  adjusts  the  reins  to  the 
proper  length.  The  man  at  the  leaders'  heads 
should  keep  the  horses  far  enough  forward  to  have 
their  traces  nearly  as  tight  as  if  they  were  pulling, 
otherwise  the  coachman  cannot  readily  judge  how 
long  his  lead-reins  should  be.  The  reins  should  be 
taken  in  the  hand  at  such  a  point  that  all  the  horses 
when  they  are  started  shall  have  their  traces  equally 
tight. 

Many  authorities  think  that  the  wheelers  alone 
should  start  the  coach,  the  traces  of  the  leaders 
being  slack,  but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
good  reason  for  this. 

Certainly,  the  leaders  alone  should  not  start  the 
coach  while  the  wheelers'  traces  are  slack,  but  when 
the  team  starts,  the  leaders  should  feel  their  traces 
before  they  tighten  their  reins,  or  from  the  sudden 


CH.  XIV  STARTING  289 

check  to  their  mouths,  they  will  be  apt  to  stop,  or 
to  back,  with  the  result  of  having  the  pole  run  on 
them,  whereupon  they  will  jump  forward  to  be 
brought  up  again  by  the  short  rein.  With  leaders 
inclined  to  rear  at  starting,  it  is  best  to  give  a  good 
deal  of  rein,  so  that  they  shall  feel  their  traces  and 
have  some  work  to  do  from  the  very  beginning  ; 
they  can  be  easily  brought  back  later. 

Once  in  his  seat,  with  his  reins  adjusted,  the 
coachman  must  glance  over  his  team  to  see  that 
no  rein  has  a  twist,  that  the  coupling-reins  are 
crossed,  and  that  neither  of  the  inside  lead-traces 
is  twisted  ;  from  the  box,  he  is  better  able  to  notice 
these  points  than  from  the  ground. 

All  is  now  ready  for  the  start.  The  groom  should 
be  in  front  of  the  leaders,  and  facing  the  coach. 
The  head  man  should  be  at  the  wheeler's  head  on 
the  off  side.  Just  before  starting,  the  brake  should 
be  taken  off,:;:  very  quietly,  the  whip  having  been 
passed  into  the  left  hand  ;  the  brake-handle  should 
never  be  touched  while  the  whip  is  in  the  right  hand, 
because  to  do  so  causes  a  wide  movement  of  the 
whip,  which  may  be  noticed  by  the  horses. 

The  coachman  then  intimates,  by  a  nod,  to  the 
groom  at  the  leaders'  heads,  that,  if  he  is  holding 
the  leaders,  he  is  to  let  go  ;  the  man  steps  to  the 
near  side  and  moves  back  a  few  paces  so  as  to  be 

*  For  a  discussion  of  this  question  of  the  brake,  see  further  on, 
under  Stopping. 

19 


29O  STARTING  CH.  XIV 

opposite  to  the  man  who  is  at  the  wheeler's  head  ; 
and  as  the  back  of  the  coach  reaches  them,  both 
men  get  up  at  the  same  time  into  the  rumble. 

The  start  should  be  made  as  quietly  as  possible  ; 
the  movement  of  the  man  from  the  leaders'  heads, 
combined  with  a  slight  yielding  of  the  coachman's 
hand,  is  generally  a  sufficient  intimation  to  the 
horses.  If  anything  must  be  said  to  make  them 
start,  a  short  exclamation  should  be  used,  such  as 
'  Right !'  uttered  sharply  and  only  once.  Some- 
times '  Pull  up  !'  is  used,  but  this  seems  to  be 
hardly  appropriate,  since  to  pull  up,  means  to  stop. 

In  giving  a  rule  for  starting  a  team,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  satisfy  all  coaching  critics.  Some  au- 
thorities prescribe  dropping,  or  yielding,  the  hand, 
to  oive  the  horses  the  signal,  others  tighten  the  reins 
slightly.  '  Nimrod'  [Northern  Tour,  p.  340),  speak- 
ing of  a  doubtful-looking  team  at  a  change,  says  : 
'  But  dropping  my  hand  to  them  at  starting,  they 
'all  went  away.'  Beaufort  (p.  10)  says:  'An  un- 
'  workmanlike  trick,  which  the  coachman  cannot  be 
'  too  careful  to  avoid,  is  that  of  slackening  his  reins 
'and  pushing  out  his  hands  before  him  when  he 
'wants  to  start;  a  trick,  however,  which  is  much 
'  affected  by  many  men  who  find  themselves  on  a 
'driving-seat  which  they  do  not  adorn.'  Howlett 
teaches  that  the  hand  should  be  dropped  or  yielded 
at  starting. 

Possibly,  these  differences  are  more  imaginary 
than  real  ;  since  the  proper  action  depends  a  good 


CH.   XIV  STARTING  29 1 

deal  upon  what  has  gone  before  it.  I  incline  to  the 
opinion,  that  the  proper  way  is,  just  before  starting, 
to  feel  all  the  horses'  mouths  by  tightening  the 
reins  very  gradually,  so  as  to  not  excite  any  one 
of  them,  and  thus  to  gather  the  horses,  and  indicate 
that  something  is  to  be  required  of  them  ;  then,  at 
the  instant  of  starting,  the  hand  should  be  yielded, 
decidedly,  but  not  too  far,  three  or  four  inches,  for 
instance,  to  let  the  horses  get  off.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  with  another  team,  which  has  been 
differently  handled,  a  tightening  of  the  reins  will 
have  the  same  result ;  and,  in  fact,  no  coachman  can 
exactly  predict  what  a  team  entirely  strange  to  him, 
will  do  at  the  start  ;  and  he  may  have  to  employ 
both  methods  in  rapid  succession. 

Gathering  the  horses  and  then  yielding  the  hand, 
is  more  in  accordance  with  the  general  rules  of 
horsemanship,  and  the  coachman's  own  team  should 
be  accustomed  to  that  way  of  starting.  The  excla- 
mation :  '  Right !'  or  whatever  word  may  be  adopted, 
will,  usually,  if  heard  by  all  the  horses,  make  them 
start ;  the  clucking  noise  frequently  made  for  this 
purpose  is  not  always  heard  by  the  leaders,  and  it 
excites  other  horses  which  may  be  near  the  coach. 
The  reins  are,  after  all,  the  proper  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  coachman  and  his  horses. 

The  touch  of  the  whip  is  too  exciting  to  be  used 
in  starting,  unless  a  sluggish  horse  decidedly  holds 
back,  and  it  is  successful  only  in  practised  hands. 

It  need  hardly  be  said,   that  the  favourite  news- 


292  STARTING  CH.  XIV 

paper  expression,  '  the  coachman  cracked  his  whip 
and  started  off,'  is  entirely  due  to  the  imagination 
of  the  reporter  ;  no  one  ever  cracks  a  four-in-hand 
whip. 

On  a  public-coach,  it  is  the  business  of  the  guard 
to  see  that  the  passengers  are  seated,  and  when 
all  is  ready  for  the  start,  he  comes  forward,  on  the 
off  side  as  far  as  the  wheelers'  shoulders,  and  says 
'  Riofht,  sir  !'  to  the  coachman. 

Since  on  a  drag  there  is  no  guard,  the  coachman 
must  be  sure  that  no  one  on  the  coach  is  standing 
np  when  he  is  about  to  start,  and  if  there  are  per- 
sons on  the  back  of  the  coach  where  he  cannot 
readily  see  them,  it  is  well,  as  a  warning,  to  say 
'  Sit  fast !'  before  starting. 

If  a  coach  has  only  one  servant  with  it,  or  if  one 
of  the  two  is  driving,  the  man  on  the  ground  should 
hold  both  the  wheelers  and  the  leaders,  by  grasping 
the  coupling-reins  of  the  wheelers  and  the  lead- 
reins  together,  with  his  hand  passed  under  the  off 
wheeler's  neck.  He  can  thus  restrain  the  whole 
four  ;  but  if  he  holds  the  leaders  only,  by  their  heads, 
and  the  wheelers  start,  they  may  push  the  leaders 
over  the  man  and  set  the  whole  team  off. 

If  a  team  standing  still,  starts  suddenly,  when  no 
one  is  on  the  box,  a  bystander  should  seize  the 
heads  of  the  wheelers  and  not  run  to  those  of  the 
leaders,  as  people  generally  do.  If  the  wheelers 
are  held,  the  leaders  cannot  well  run  away  with 
them. 


CH.   XIV  MOVING    OFF  293 

Moving  off. — There  are  larger  opportunities  for 
awkwardness  in  the  start  than  at  any  other  time  ; 
even  the  most  practised  coachman  will  sometimes 
not  know,  until  the  team  straightens  out  whether  he 
has  his  reins  exactly  right,  and  for  this  reason  a  few 
moments  spent  in  making  sure  that  the  reins  are 
exactly  where  they  should  be,  are  not  wasted. 

A  beginner  may  sometimes  have  the  following 
experience  :  when  he  gets  into  his  seat  he  has  great 
difficulty  in  catching  his  double  thong,  the  loop  will 
run  down  too  far  on  the  stick,  and  he  finds  his  right 
hand  full  of  loose  thong  ;  after  he  has  arranged  this 
and  has  pulled  his  reins  about  a  good  deal  before 
getting  them  to  his  liking,  he  nods  to  the  men  to  let 
go,  probably  forgetting  to  take  off  the  brake. 

The  leaders,  which  always  should  be  quick  at 
starting,  jump  forward,  and  one  of  them,  brought  up 
suddenly  by  his  draught-rein's  being  held  too  short, 
rears,  or  else  stops  while  his  partner  rushes  forward 
to  the  extent  of  his  longer  rein.  The  wheel  horses, 
moving  forward,  run  the  point  of  the  pole  into  the 
stern  of  the  stopping  leader,  with  the  result  of 
making  him  move  forward  again,  if  he  does  not 
kick.  If  he  goes  on,  one  lead-rein  being  shorter 
than  the  other,  brings  both  leaders  off  to  the  side  of 
the  road,  so  that  one  of  them  goes  up  on  the  kerb- 
stone or  on  the  grass  ;  and  in  his  frantic  endeavours 
to  get  those  two  reins  straight,  the  coachman  lets 
the  off  wheel-rein  slip  through  his  fingers  and  run 
out  a  couple  of  inches,  not  improving  the  situation. 


294  MOVING    OFF  CH.   XIV 

By  this  time  the  second  groom  may  have  reached 
the  horses'  heads,  and  straightened  the  animals  out 
until  the  reins  can  be  pushed  through  the  fino-ers 
to  their  proper  places,  and  a  second  start  made 
in  somewhat  improved  fashion,  although  some  one 
rein  will  keep  slipping  in  the  most  provoking 
manner. 

When  the  coach  docs  get  fairly  under  way,  one 
of  the  grooms  whispers  in  as  confidential  a  man- 
ner as  is  possible  from  his  distant  seat :  '  Brake's 
on,  sir  !' 

These  difficulties  overcome,  the  tyro  next  finds 
that  in  the  scrimmage  he  has  got  his  near  wheel- 
rein  on  top  of  the  off  lead-rein,  and  the  two  reins 
seem  to  be  all  edges  while  he  is  endeavouring  to 
get  them  right. 

If  the  team  pulls  at  all,  as  is  quite  likely  after 
this  little  flurry,  the  two  middle  reins  keep  slipping 
out  from  between  his  first  and  second  fingers,  with 
the  result  of  having  the  leaders  off  to  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  road  ;  at  last  all  calms  clown  and  things 
go  more  smoothly. 

At  such  a  moment,  the  beginner  is  apt  to  think 
that  driving  is  not  so  amusing  as  he  believed  it  to 
be  when  he  came  out  of  the  house,  drawing-  on  his 
gloves,  and  admiring  the  '  smart'-looking  '  turn-out' 
before  him. 

All  this  is  intended  to  emphasise  the  importance 
of  having  everything  as  nearly  right  as  possible 
before  giving  the  signal  for  starting,  with  the  reins 


CH.  XIV  MOVING    OFF  295 

the  right  length  and  so  drawn  up  that  each  horse's 
mouth  is  just  felt,  thus  ensuring  their  being  evenly 
held,  or  evenly  released,  as  the  hand  is  moved. 

Since,  in  taking  up  a  load,  the  coach  is  usually 
close  to  a  step  or  kerb,  it  follows  that  immediately 
after  starting  an  inclination  must  be  made  to  the 
right  or  left,  and  this  is  most  neatly  made  by  taking 
a  point  with  both  the  lead-rein  and  the  wheel-rein 
on  the  proper  side  (see  Figs.  136,  137),  which  may 
be  done  before  giving-  the  signal  to  move.  This 
leaves  the  whip  hand  free  for  a  prompt  use  of  the 
whip  on  a  wheeler,  sometimes  necessary  at  the  mo- 
ment of  starting,  and  as  soon  as  the  desired  incli- 
nation has  been  obtained,  the  points  are  dropped 
and  the  reins  are  again  even.  In  driving  away  from 
the  door  of  a  house  in  confined  grounds,  nice  hand- 
ling is  required, — for  instance,  to  go  round  a  curved 
road,  to  the  left  out  of  a  narrow  gate,  and  then  to 
the  right  into  the  road  or  street,  and  to  keep  the 
wheel  tracks  in  the  middle  of  the  drive  and  not  have 
them  almost  on  the  grass,  first  on  one  side  and  then 
on  the  other. 

If  of  two  ways  of  going  up  to  a  door  one  is  more 
difficult  than  the  other,  it  is  best  to  go  in  by  the 
difficult  way,  when  the  horses  are  already  moving 
and  well  in  hand,  and  to  go  out  by  the  easier  way. 

In  going  through  a  gateway,  the  leaders  should  be 
taken  back  and  the  coach  guided  by  the  wheelers  ; 
then  if  the  lead-bar  touches  the  post,  the  bar  will 
yield  and  slip  by,  whereas  if  the  traces  are  tight,  the 


296  HAND    ON    THE    REINS  CH.   XIV 

bar  will  tear  the  post,  or  else  the  bar  or  the  trace 
will  be  broken. 

Having  got  fairly  on  the  road,  a  few  minutes  are 
spent  in  noticing  how  the  team  is  going,  and,  if  it  is 
a  strange  team,  what  are  its  peculiarities  ;  the  places 
of  the  reins  in  the  hand  can  then  be  determined, 
and  that  having  been  done,  the  reins  should  be  kept 
in  the  left  hand  as  far  as  possible  unchanged,  with 
the  right  hand  always  free. 

The  rigJit  Jiand  s/iould  not  remain  on  the  reins 
an  instant  longer  than  the  time  required  to  make 
a  change  of  some  kind. 

For  example,  in  making  a  point  with  a  lead-rein, 
it  should  be  done  promptly,  taking  enough  rein  and 
not  to  much,  and,  after  putting  the  point  in  its 
proper  place,  the  right  hand  should  be  taken  off 
immediately  ;  or,  if  an  inclination  is  to  be  made  to 
the  off  side  of  the  road,  the  two  points  must  be 
made,  or  the  reins  shortened,  for  that  side,  but  the 
right  hand  should  not  be  put  on  the  reins  and  kept 
there,  since  this  action  is  likely  to  pull  the  reins  a 
little  out  of  the  left  hand,  and  the  moment  the  rio-ht 
hand  is  taken  off,  the  horses  will  run  over  to  the  left, 
and  all  the  beauty  of  the  movement  will  be  spoiled. 

It  seems  hardly  possible  that  there  should  be  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  or  not  the  reins 
should  be  kept  in  the  left  hand  in  an  unchanged 
position  ;  an  unchanged  position  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  mean  that  a  dead  pull  should  be  kept  upon 
the  horses'  mouths  ;  the  whole  hand  can  give  readily 


CH.   XIV  HAND    ON    THE    REINS  297 

to  the  mouth  just  as  it  does  on  the  rein  of  a  saddle 
horse. 

Some  coachmen  are  constantly  changing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  reins  in  the  left  hand,  in  the  mistaken 
belief  that  they  are  keeping  the  horses'  mouths 
light ;  in  reality,  they  are  only  worrying  the  horses. 

As  to  the  wheel-reins,  for  example  ;  when  they  are 
once  evenly  adjusted,  the  horses  are  going  straight  ; 
if  one  or  the  other  is  lengthened  the  pair  will  go  to 
one  side  or  the  other,  which  is  not  desired,  and  ex- 
actly the  same  is  true  of  the  leaders,  as  a  pair.  That 
the  lead-reins  may  require  to  be  let  out  or  taken 
back  is  more  likely,  but  even  this  need  not  often 
happen  on  a  level  road. 

The  more  successful  the  coachman  is  in  keeping 
his  reins  unchanged  in  his  left  hand  the  better, 
always  remembering  that  this  does  not  mean  or 
necessitate  a  dead  pull  upon  his  horses'  mouths  ;  on 
the  contrary,  he  should  constantly  give  and  take  his 
whole  hand,  so  as  to  prevent  his  horses  from  pulling. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  man  must  be  a  very  good 
coachman  and  his  team  an  even  one,  to  keep  the 
reins  unchanged  in  his  left  hand  ;  the  reins  will  slip 
more  or  less  and  require  re-arrangement  by  the 
right  hand.  Slight  chancres  of  direction  can  be 
readily  made  by  the  left  hand  alone  (see  page  311). 

The  perfection  of  driving  is  to  have  the  least 
visible  motion  of  hands  or  reins,  and  a  cultivation 
of  this  quiet  way  is  strongly  recommended  to  the 
beginner ;  it  will    worry  his    horses    less,   save   him 


298  HAND    ON    THE    REINS  CH.   XIV 

from  fatigue,  and  be  considered  much  more  elegant 
by  good  judges,  and  even  by  those  who  admire  it, 
without  knowing  exactly  why.  A  fussy  coachman  is 
not  necessarily  a  good  one,  although  many  people 
seem  to  think  so. 

It  was  once  said  in  my  hearing,  of  a  certain  four- 
in-hand  man,  that  his  horses  must  be  very  well 
trained,  because  they  always  went  along  of  them- 
selves ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  drove  all  sorts  of 
horses,  but  knew  how  to  put  them  together  and  how 
to  drive  them. 

As  to  authorities  on  this  matter,  the  following 
quotations  are  interesting.  '  Nimrod'  {Northern 
Tour,  p.  274),  speaking  of  David  Roup,  a  coachman 
for  the  famous  Captain  Barclay,  says  : — 

'  His  seat  on  his  box  is  perfect ;  his  reins  well  laid 
'  over  his  fingers,  and  as  firm  as  if  they  were  stitched 
1  there  ;  his  hands  as  quiet  as  if  he  were  asleep,  the 
'  right  hand  never  stirring  at  all  till  it  was  wanted, 
'  when  it  was  used  as  it  should  be  ;  and  taken  alto- 
'  gether,  there  was  a  combination  of  strength,  with 
'  ease  and  smoothness,  about  his  performance  that 
'pleased  me  as  much  as  it  surprised  me.'  This  was 
written  in  1834,  the  best  period  of  coaching,  by  an 
excellent  critic. 

Corbett  {An  Old  CoacJunan 's  CJiatter,  p.  256) 
says  :  '  I  was  once  talking  on  this  subject  to 
'  Charles  Tustin,  with  whose  name  I  have  already 
4  taken  liberties,  when  he  remarked  that  a  coachman 
'  should  take  up  his  reins  at  the  beginning  of  a  stage 


CH.   XIV 


POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM 


299 


'  and  never  have  to  alter  them  in  his  left  hand  till 
'  he  throws  them  down  at  the  end  of  it.  Some 
'  drivers  I  have  seen,  appear  to  think  it  a  sign  of  a 
1  light  hand  to  be  constantly  fiddling  with  their  reins. 
'  I  believe  it  is  more  a  sion  of  a  fidoretino-  hand,  and  I 
'  am  quite  sure,  from  experience,  that  hot-tempered 
'  horses  settle  down  much  better  without  it.  The 
'less  their  mouths  are  meddled  with  the  better.' 

This  subject  has  been  treated  here  at  some 
lenoth  because  there  are  excellent  coachmen  who 
hold  views  opposite  to  those  here  expressed,  and 
who  advocate  a  constant  playing  with  the  reins  and 
shifting-  of  them. 

Position  of  Hand  and  Arm. — According  to  the 
instructions   given    for   getting    up,    the    reins    are 


Fig 


shifted  from  the  right  to  the  left  in  the  same  posi- 
tions in  which  they  were  held  in  the  right  hand  ;  that 
is,  the  near  lead-rein  on  top  of  the  fore-finger,  the 


300  POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM  CH.   XIV 

off  lead  and  the  near  wheel-reins  between  the  first 
and  second  fingers,  the  lead  on  top,  and  the  off  wheel 
between  the  second  and  third  fingers  (Fig.  132). 

There  is  undoubtedly  a  disadvantage  in  having 
one  rein  on  top  of  the  other  between  the  first  and 
second  fingers,  but  in  what  is  called  a  full  hand,  see 
Fig.  147,  where  one  rein  is  in  each  space,  the  off 
wheel-rein  cannot  be  held  strongly  enough  by  the 
little  finger,  and  the  method  of  holding  the  reins, 
shown  in  Fig.  132,  is  that  universally  adopted  in 
England  and  sanctioned  by  the  best  practice.  (See 
the  end  of  this  Chapter  for  other  Continental 
methods.)  The  thumb  should  not  be  closed  down 
upon  the  lead-rein,  because  that  tires  the  hand,  and 
because  it  should  be  always  ready  to  receive  the 
loop  of  the  lead-rein  when  making  a  point ;  for  the 
same  reason  the  fore-finger  is  kept  a  little  distance 
away  from  the  second-finger. 

The  reins  are  held,  not  by  squeezing  them  on  their 
flat  surfaces,  but  by  the  pressure  of  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers  on  their  edges.  If  they  are  too  wide 
and  too  thick  for  the  size  of  the  hand,  the  two 
middle  reins  will  not  touch  the  fingers,  which  will, 
as  it  were,  arch  round  them  ;  if  they  are  of  a  proper 
width  the  fino-ers  will  touch  all  the  edofes  and  hold 
them  fast.  This  is  an  obvious  reason  for  having 
them  all  of  the  same  width.  With  a  light  team,  the 
pressure  of  the  reins  upon  each  other,  and  their 
friction  against  the  glove  are  quite  sufficient  to 
keep  them  in  place  with  the  hand  easy  and  open. 


CH.,  XIV  POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM  301 

While  reins  should  not  be  glassy  or  slippery,  it  is 
a  mistake  to  have  them  sticky  with  wax  ;  it  will  be 
difficult  to  shift  them  slightly,  as  may  be  required. 
The  more  experienced  the  coachman,  the  less  he 
will  care  for  sticky  reins  ;  just  as  a  beginner  on 
horseback  likes  a  sticky  saddle,  while  nothing  is 
more  disagreeable  to  an  old  horseman. 

The  normal  position  of  the  arm  is  nearly  hori- 
zontal, the  hand  slightly  lower  than  the  elbow, 
opposite  to  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  about  four 
inches  away  from  it.  The  hand  must  be  slightly 
bent  at  the  wrist  toward  the  body,  so  that  the 
knuckles  point  straight  to  the  front.  This  gives  a 
lightness  to  the  hand,  from  the  play  of  the  wrist, 
which  cannot  possibly  be  had  if  the  hand  is  held 
out  straight.  The  lead-rein  will,  in  this  position, 
run  nearly  over  the  knuckle.  The  back  of  the 
hand  must  be  vertical,  neither  turned  up  nor  down  ; 
it  is  then  ready  to  be  rotated  on  the  wrist  as  may 
be  required. 

If  the  hand  is  held  much  higher  than  about  the 
height  of  the  waistcoat  pocket,  there  will  be  no 
room  to  raise  it  further  in  making  a  sudden  stop  ; 
if  it  is  too  low  it  will  be  difficult  to  keep  it  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  body,  and  the  right  hand  will 
have  too  far  to  go  to  take  hold  of  a  rein  in  front  of 
the  left ;  if  it  is  tight  up  against  the  body,  there  will 
be  no  room  to  draw  it  back  in  stopping  or  in  short- 
ening all  the  reins  together  ;  if  it  is  much  further 
forward  than  four  inches,  it  will  be  too  far  from  the 


302  POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM  CH.   XIV 

right  hand,  will  not  be  opposite  to  the  centre  of  the 
body,  and  will  induce  the  coachman  to  lean  forward. 

In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  the  normal  positions 
of  hand,  arm,  or  body  should  be  intermediate  ones  ; 
that  is,  they  should  be  such  as  will  permit  prompt 
motion  in  any  direction. 

During  a  long  drive,  for  the  purpose  of  resting 
the  arm,  the  hand  may  be  permitted  to  go  down 
and  forward  as  far  as  it  will,  for  a  time. 

Naturally,  men  of  different  mould  and  stature, 
will  adopt  somewhat  different  positions  of  the  arm, 
but  for  the  average  man,  the  position  just  described 
is  the  correct  one,  since  it  permits  latitude  of  motion 
in  all  directions  and  ensures  the  coachman's  sitting 
straight  to  the  front,  which  is  very  important. 

The  proper  position  for  the  hand  and  arm  is 
shown  in  the  photograph  facing  this  page,  but  it 
is  only  the  average  position  ;  a  variety  of  causes 
may  lead  to  a  change  of  position.  With  a  very 
light  team  and  on  a  short  drive,  especially  where 
appearance  is  important,  the  hand  can  be  held 
somewhat  hi^h  with  the  wrist  rounded  in.  This 
gives  lightness  and  sufficient  strength  for  the  pur- 
pose. With  a  pulling  team,  on  a  long  drive,  the 
hand  and  arm  must  come  down  somewhat.  One 
extreme  may  be  when  showing  a  highly  dressed 
team  in  the  exhibition  rino-  ■  all  the  horses  will  be 
very  light,  going  well  up  to  their  bits  and  not 
pulling  a  pound  apiece  ;  then  a  high  hand,  sensitive 
to  the  slightest  touch,   is  proper  ;   the  coachman  is 


PLATE    XXVII. 


POSITION    ON    THb    BOX. 


CH.   XIV  POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM  303 

perfectly  familiar  with  his  team,  and  knows  exactly 
what  he  can  do  with  them. 

The  other  extreme  may  be  with  a  heavy,  lugging 
team  which  the  coachman  has  never  before  seen, 
with  bad  mouths  and  perhaps  no  one  horse  bitted 
as  he  should  be.  The  coachman  must  then  keep 
his  hand  down  and  his  arm  rather  straight,  or  he 
will  be  tired  out  in  a  short  time. 

It  is  just  the  difference  between  riding  a  highly 
trained  horse  with  a  very  light  hand  and  steering  a 
pulling  brute  across  country  with  a  snaffle-bit.  No 
doubt  a  fine  horseman  with  good  hands  can  take 
the  puller  with  one-half  the  exertion  that  a  bad 
horseman  can,  and  at  the  end  of  the  day  will  have 
him  pulling  less  than  when  he  began  ;  in  the  same 
way  an  accomplished  coachman  will  drive  a  bad 
team  with  less  exertion  than  a  poor  one  will,  but 
he  cannot  keep  his  hand  and  arm  as  high  as  with 
a  light  team. 

The  hand  need  never  be  higher  than  the  elbow, 
that  is,  with  the  forearm  horizontal  ;  even  this  is 
rather  too  high  for  ordinary  work  ;  any  greater 
elevation  is  an  affectation.  Every  now  and  then 
the  fashion  comes  up,  especially  in  pair-driving,  of 
holding  one  or  both  hands  up  under  the  chin,  but 
for  this  there  is  no  reason.  In  road  work,  and  with 
any  but  the  most  finely  dressed  park  team,  the 
hand  should  come  down  to  about  the  lower  button 
of  the  waistcoat,  which  will  give  the  forearm  a  de- 
cided inclination  downward  ;  and  the  hand  must  be 


304  POSITION    ON    THE    BOX  CH.   XIV 

at  least  three  to  five  inches  away  from  the  body  ; 
if  it  is  not,  there  will  be  no  room  to  draw  it  back 
for  a  sudden  stop,  and  the  body  will  have  to  be 
thrown  back  ;  a  most  ungraceful  motion. 

The  evidence  seems  to  show  that  the  coachmen 
ot  1820  to  1840,  whom  we  suppose  to  have  been 
the  best,  held  their  hands  somewhat  low  and  out, 
with  a  straight  arm,  as  it  is  sometimes  called. 

The  left  hand  should  be  kept  opposite  to  the  cen- 
tre line  of  the  body,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  move  in 
either  direction,  and  not  to  be  too  far  away  from  the 
right  hand  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  a  relief  in  a  long  drive 
to  drop  the  arm  almost  straight  down  by  the  left  side 
for  a  short  time.  In  doing  so,  however,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  off  side  reins  are  shortened, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  pull  them  out  a  little,  to 
prevent  the  team  from  going  over  to  the  right. 

The  driving-seat  must  not  be  so  steep  that  the 
coachman  hardly  sits  upon  it,  but  only  leans  against 
it,  which  is  fatiguing,  because  the  weight  of  the  body 
does  not  sufficiently  assist  the  pull  of  the  arms  with 
a  troublesome  team,  and  the  coachman  may  be  even 
pulled  off  the  box  should  a  wheeler  fall  ;  neither 
must  it  be  too  flat,  as  that  brings  the  knees  in  the 
way  of  the  reins  and  diminishes  the  effect  of  the 
legs  in  resisting  a  pull.  The  cushion  shown  in  Fig. 
$7  and  in  Plate  XXVII.  is  of  a  proper  shape,  and 
is  such  that  the  knees  are  somewhat  bent  and  the 
feet  rest  comfortably  on  the  foot-board,  without  the 
ankle's  being  strained,  which  will  happen  if  the  lower 


CH.  XIV  ON    THE    ROAD  305 

part  of  the  leg  is  at  too  much  of  an  angle  with  the 
foot-board. 

The  coachman  should  sit  straight,  and  square  to  the 
front,  his  shoulders  back,  and  his  knees  and  feet  close 
together,  his  toes  not  projecting  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  foot-board.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that 
he  should  never  cross  his  leg-s  or  have  one  foot  in 
advance  of  the  other.  If  he  sits  with  his  feet  drawn 
back,  off  of  their  proper  place  on  the  foot-board, 
he  is  merely  preparing  himself  to  be  thrown  on  his 
wheelers'  backs,  in  case  of  striking  a  stone  or  a  post. 

The  whip  is  held  by  the  right  hand,  at  the  ferule 
(which  is  ten  inches  from  the  butt),  and  at  an  angle 
of  about  forty-five  degrees  from  the  horizontal,  and 
forty-five  degrees  to  the  front.  In  this  position  the 
thong  is  above  the  near  wheeler,  and  the  whole  whip 
is  out  of  the  way  of  a  person  on  the  box.  If  it  is 
nearer  to  this  passenger,  a  sudden  touch  on  a  branch, 
in  passing,  will  drive  the  whip  back  into  his  face  before 
the  coachman  can  stop  it.  If  it  is  too  low  the  loop 
of  the  thong  may  touch,  or  catch  on,  passing  vehicles. 

On  the  Road. — On  a  road  which  is  not  crowded, 

the  coach  should  be  kept  near  the  centre,  where  the 

surface  is  usually  hardest  and  smoothest,  and  where 

the  coach  will  not  incline  to  one  side.      On  a  crowded 

road,   the  proper  side  should  be  kept,   or  constant 

deviations    in    meeting    vehicles  will    be  necessary. 

The  best  place,  in  very  crowded  traffic,  is  just  to  the 

right  of  the  centre  line  of  the  road  ;  advantage  can 

20 


o 


06  INCLINE    TO    THE    RIGHT  CH.   XIV 


then  be  taken  to  slip  along  past  the  vehicles  which 
are  in  front,  whereas  if  the  coach  is  far  over  to  the 
right  it  will  be  hopelessly  hemmed  in  by  the  vehicles 
about  it,  some  of  which  may  be  going  at  a  walk. 
In  driving  through  very  crowded  streets,  this  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  if  time  is  to  be  made. 

Of  course  the  side  of  the  road  just  mentioned 
refers  to  America.  In  England  it  must  be  reversed. 
In  France  it  is  the  same  as  in  America. 

In  turning-  out,  when  meeting  another  vehicle,  the 
right  hand  should  take  hold  of  the  off  reins,  with  the 
third  finger  between  them,  about  six  inches  in  front 
of  the  left  hand,  and  then  be  drawn  toward  the  left, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  left  should  be  allowed  to 
go  forward  somewhat,  so  that  the  hands  nearly 
meet  (Fig.  133). 

If  the  right  hand  is  moved  outward  or  away  from 
the  left,  it  will  inevitably  pull  the  reins  out  of  the  left, 
so  that  when  the  movement  is  completed,  the  reins 
in  the  left  hand  will  not  be  even,  and  will  require 
re-adjustment. 

This  is  a  mistake  that  the  majority  of  beginners 
make,  and  it  is  a  serious  one.  If  the  right  hand  is 
not  fully  six  inches  in  front  of  the  left  on  the  reins, 
it  is  more  liable  to  pull  them  out. 

The  reason  for  letting  the  left  hand  go  forward  is 
that  the  pace  shall  not  be  diminished,  as  will  be  the 
case  if  no  rein  is  given  to  compensate  for  the  pull. 
In  fact,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  horses 
should  be  permitted   to  go  to  the  right,   instead  of 


CH.   XIV 


INCLINE    TO    THE    RIGHT 


307 


being  pulled  to  the  right,  and  with  some  horses  it  is 
better  to  make  the  whole  movement  by  letting  the 
left  hand  go  forward,  not  taking  the  right  hand  back. 


FlG.      I33.        INCLINE  TO  THE  RIGHT  (OFF  REINS  SEPARATED). 

Some  good  coachmen  put  the  whole  hand  on  the 
off  reins,  with  the  nails  downward,  taking  both  reins 
in  one  grasp,  between  the  under  side  of  the  hand 
and  the  thumb  (Fig.  134),  but  it  is  better  to  take 
the  reins  with  the  third  finger  between  them,  be- 
cause the  hands  and  reins  are  then  exactly  in  the 
position  to  make  a  point  with  both  off  reins  into  the 
spaces  on  both  sides  of  the  third  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  if  it  is  desirable  to  do  so  in  order  to  continue 


;o8 


INCLINE    TO    THE    RIGHT 


CH.   XIV 


for  more  than  a  few  seconds  the  movement  toward 
the  right,  or  to  put  the  right  hand  on  all  the  reins 
in  case  the  horses  pull. 


FlG.      I34.         INCLINE  TO  THE   RIGHT  (OFF  REINS  TOGETHER). 

It  may  be  added,  that  the  hands  should  be  always 
kept  with  the  backs  vertical,  and  with  the  fingers 
pointing  toward  each  other,  in  order  to  make  the 
fingering  as  simple  and  as  rapid  as  possible. 

Having  the  reins  separated  by  a  finger,  permits 
either  rein  to  be  allowed  to  slip,  if  this  is  necessary 
to  make  the  movement  more  accurate. 

The  right  hand  must  be  taken  off  of  the  reins  as 
soon  as  the  movement  to  the  side  of  the  road  is 
accomplished,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  it 
immediately  in  the  same  way  on  the  near  reins  to 
return  to  the  centre  of  the  road. 


CH.   XIV 


INCLINE    TO    THE    LEFT 


309 


In  turning  out  to  the  left,  the  converse  of  this 
must  be  followed,  and  the  right  hand  passed  in  front 
of  the  left,  taking  the  near  reins,  separated  by  a 
finger,  and  pulling  them  toward  the  right  hand.     It 


FlG.     I35.         INCLINE  TO  THE  LEFT. 

is  sometimes  said,  that  the  right  hand  never  should 
be  crossed  over  the  left  to  seize  the  reins  ;  but  it  is 
not  really  crossed  over ;  only  put  in  front ;  it  is 
impossible  to  take  hold  of  the  near  reins  with  the 
right  hand  without  putting  the  right  hand  in  this 
position. 

Since  the  right  hand,  when  on  the  near  reins  and 
in  front  of  the  left,  naturally  pulls  toward  the  left 
hand,  there,  is  not  much  likelihood  of  disturbing  the 
reins,  but  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 


3io 


INCLINE    TO    THE    LEFT 


CH.   XIV 


fault  of  drawing  the  right  hand  away  from  the  left  and 
the  reins  with  it, — the  source  of  much  bad  driving. 

The  method  just  described  occupies  the  right  hand 
and  prevents,  for  the  time,  the  use  of  the  whip,  for 
the  whip  never  must  be  used  while  the  whip  hand  is  on 
the  reins.  There  is  another  method  which  is  neater 
and  which  leaves  the  whip  hand  free  ;  this  is,  to  take 


FlG.     I36.         POINT  OF  TWO   NEAR   REINS. 


a  point  or  loop  with  both  lead-rein  and  wheel-rein 
of  the  proper  side  in  the  left  hand  and  to  hold  it, 
forwarding  the  hand  slightly  to  make  up  for  the 
point,  until  it  is  necessary  to  return  to  the  original 
direction,  when  the  points  are  simply  allowed  to  run 
through  the  fingers.  All  this  time,  the  right  hand  is 
free  to  use  the  whip  on  a  wheeler,  if  necessary,  or 
to  increase  for  a  moment  the  effect  of  the  point. 
This  is  much  the  better  way  of  making;  the  move- 
ment,  but  it   requires   strength   in   the  fingers,   par- 


CH.  XIV         INCLINE    TO    THE    RIGHT    OR    LEFT 


311 


ticularly  for  the  off  side  reins.  In  turning  out  to 
the  left  to  pass  a  succession  of  objects  on  the  road, 
it  is  especially  useful,  as  it  also  is  in  obliquing 
across  a  street,  after  having  stopped  at  that  kerb 
which  is  on  the  side  against  the  traffic. 

There  is  another  way  of  making  a  slight  incli- 
nation to  the  right  or  left,  with  the  left  hand  only. 
If  the  left  hand  is  turned  so  that  the  back  of  it  is 


FlG.      I37.         POINT  OF  TWO  OFF  REINS. 

uppermost  and  at  the  same  time  the  hand  is  drawn 
off  toward  the  left  side  of  the  body,  the  off  side  reins 
will  be  shortened,  the  near  side  reins  slackened,  and 
the  team  will  go  over  to  the  right.  If  the  left  hand 
is  turned  at  the  wrist  so  that  the  thumb  comes 
toward  the  body,  and  the  hand  moves  at  the  same 
time  toward  the  right,  the  near  side  reins  will  be 
tightened  and  the  team  will  20  to  the  left.  This  is 
a  very  neat  way  of  getting  over  from  one  side  of  the 
road  to  the  other. 


312 


TURNING    A    CORNER 


CH.  £IV 


Turning  a  Corner. — The  next  movement  to  be 
considered  is  that  of  turning  a  corner. 


Fig.  138.      point  to  the  left. 


Fig.  139.      point  to  the  left. 

Turning  to  the  left  is  done    by  taking  the  near 
lead-rein  between  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  of  the 


CH.  XIV       POINTS  TO  THE  LEFT  AND  TO  THE  RIGHT      313 

right  hand  about  seven  inches  in  front  of  the  left 
hand  (Fig.  138),  and  looping  it  at  that  point  under 
the  thumb,  holding  it  there  (Fig.  139)  until  the  leaders 
have  got  straight  in  the  new  direction,  and  then 
letting  the  loop  slip  gradually  until  the  rein  is 
straightened  out  into  its  original  position. 

In  turning  to  the  right,  the  off  lead-rein  is  taken 
in  the  same  way  (Figs.  140,  141),  and  looped  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  finger  and  afterward  al- 
lowed to  slip  through.  If  this  rein  is  put  under  the 
thumb,  the  last  part  of  the  loop  will  snap  out  with 
a  jerk,  but  from  under  the  first  finger  it  slides  out 
smoothly,  since  it  is  all  the  time  in  the  space  in  which 
it  belongs. 

The  length  of  rein  taken  up  to  make  the  point 
depends  upon  the  sharpness  of  the  turn  and  the 
promptness  with  which  the  team  responds  to  the 
rein.  In  turning  an  accustomed  corner,  horses  re- 
quire a  very  slight  hint  ;  but  for  a  very  sharp  turn, 
especially  if  it  is  less  than  a  right  angle,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  a  back  corner,  it  is  well  to  take, 
first  a  small  point  to  intimate  to  the  leaders  what  is 
expected  of  them,  and  then  to  increase  the  point 
a  few  seconds  later. 

In  making  a  point,  the  left  hand  must  not  go  for- 
ward to  meet  the  right,  but  the  right  must  come  all 
the  way  back  to  the  left,  for  the  reason  that  the 
forwarding  of  the  left  hand  lets  the  wheelers  rush 
forward  just  at  the  moment  when  they  should  go 
steadily  round  the  turn. 


314      POINTS  TO  THE  LEFT  AND  TO  THE  RIGHT      CH.  XIV 

No  harm  is  done  by  bringing  the  right  hand  all 
the  way  back,  since  in  a  turn,  the  leaders  should  be 


FlG.     I40.        POINT  TO  THE  RIGHT. 


FlG.     I4I.        POINT  TO  THE  RIGHT. 

a  little  back,  so  as  not  to  pull  on  the  point  of  the 
pole  ;  and  what  is  taken  in  the  point  is  equivalent  to 


CH.  XIV  OPPOSITION  315 

half  that  amount  taken  back  on  both  reins  together, 
and  is  usually  quite  sufficient.  If  the  approach  to 
the  turn  is  up-hill  and  the  leaders  are  working 
strongly,  while  the  road  beyond  the  turn  is  down- 
hill, it  may  be  necessary  to  take  the  leaders  back 
before  making  the  point ;  to  do  this,  the  lead-reins 
should  be  taken  entirely  out  of  the  left  hand,  by 
seizing  them  with  the  right  (with  a  finger  between 
them)  an  inch  or  two  in  front  of  the  left  hand,  pull- 
ing them  out  sideways  and  replacing  them  in  the 
left  by  carrying  the  right  hand  behind  the  left. 

Opposition. — In  many  cases,  pointing  the  leaders 
is  not  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  in  making  a 
turn  ;  the  wheel  horses  usually  incline  to  follow  the 
leaders  too  quickly,  and,  by  making  too  short  a  turn, 
to  force  the  coach  against  a  corner,  or  a  post.  To 
prevent  this,  the  wheel-rein  on  the  side  away  from 
the  turn  must  be  shortened. 

If  the  turn  is  to  the  left,  after  making  the  point 
with  the  near  lead-rein,  the  off  wheel-rein  must  be, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  opposition,  pushed 
back  from  in  front,  through  the  fingers,  or,  still  bet- 
ter, looped  in  its  proper  place  between  the  second 
and  third  fingers  (Fig.  142). 

If  the  turn  is  to  the  right,  the  two  centre  reins, 
which  are  the  off  lead  and  the  near  wheel,  are  short- 
ened by  looping  them  together  between  the  first 
and  second  finders,  and  then  allowing  as  much  of 
the  wheel-rein  to  slip, — which  it  will  readily  do  with- 


3i6 


OPPOSITION 


CH.   XIV 


out  disturbing  the  lead-rein, — as  will  give  the  proper 
amount  of  opposition.  Fig.  143  shows  this  after  five. 
wheel-rein  has  been  allowed  to  slip  so  as  to  diminish 


FlG.     I42.        OPPOSITION   OF  OFF  WHEEL-REIN. 


Fig  143.      opposition  of  near  wheel-rein. 

its  action.     All  this  is  done  without  keeping  the  right 
hand  engaged. 

Howlett  teaches,  that  a  turn  to  the  right,  for  a 
sharp  corner,  should  be  made  by  bringing  up  the 
near    wheel-rein    between    the    two    lead-reins,    and 


CH.  XIV 


OPPOSITION 


17 


hanging-  it  over  the  root  of  the  thumb  before  making 
the  lead  point  (Figs.  144,  145),  letting  it  slip  off  when 


no  longer  needed. 


FlG.     144.        HOWLETT'S  OPPOSITION. 


FlG.     I45.         DITTO,  WITH   LEFT  POINT. 

The  corresponding  fingering  for  the  turn  to  the 
left,  is  to  push  back  the  off  wheel-rein  as  described 
above. 

For  very  sharp  turns,  going  into  gateways  and 
the  like,  this  opposition  of  Howlett's  is  useful,  and 
he  himself  employs  it  with  great  effect. 


■2 


1 8  OPPOSITION  CH.  XIV 


Another  way  is,  to  point  whichever  lead-rein  is 
required,  and  then,  putting  the  right  hand  on  both 
the  reins  of  the  other  side,  in  this  way  to  control  the 
turn  ;  the  third  finder  of  the  rieht  hand  beine  be- 
tween  the  reins,  the  wheel-rein  can  be  drawn  more 
tightly  than  the  other.  If  this  turn  is  to  the  left, 
the  hands  will  be  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  135  ; 
if  to  the  right,  as  in  Fig.  133,  the  proper  point  being 
made  at  the  same  time  in  the  left  hand. 

This  method  occupies  the  right  hand  during  the 
whole  of  the  turn,  but  it  is  very  simple. 

It  must  be  stated  generally,  that  it  is  desirable  to 
use  such  methods  of  fingering  as  will  leave  the  right 
hand  as  free  as  possible,  since  the  coachman  may 
be  called  upon,  during  a  movement,  to  use  his  whip, 
which  he  cannot  do  if  his  hand  is  on  the  reins.  The 
awkward  spectacle  is  not  uncommon  of  a  coachman 
trying  to  hit  a  wheeler  while  his  hand  is  on  his 
reins  ;  under  these  circumstances,  to  hit  a  leader 
is  obviously  impossible. 

In  turning  to  the  right,  when  the  opposition  is 
made  by  using  the  two  centre  reins,  they  can  be 
shortened  by  pushing  them  back  instead  of  looping 
them,  and  afterward  they  can  be  allowed  to  slip  out 
to  their  proper  lengths  ;  in  turning  to  the  left,  it 
is  obvious  that  a  corresponding  result  will  be  at- 
tained by  pulling  the  same  reins  out  to  a  sufficient 
distance,  but  this  necessitates  bringing  back  the 
hand  almost  too  far  against  the  body  in  order  to 
make  up  for  this  lengthening. 


CH.  XIV  OPPOSITION  319 

With  handy  horses  this  is  a  neat  way  of  working, 
but  any  method  which  keeps  these  two  reins  abso- 
lutely together  has  the  disadvantage  of  giving  too 
much  opposition  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
point. 

After  this  description  of  these  various  methods, 
it  may  be  repeated,  that,  in  turning  to  the  right  the 
two  reins  which  are  between  the  first  and  second 
fingers, — namely,  the  off  lead  and  the  near  wheel, 
— should  be  looped  in  that  space  together,  by  one 
motion  of  the  right  hand.  In  turning-  to  the  left,  the 
near  lead  must  be  pointed  first  and  the  off  wheel 
afterward,  each  in  its  proper  place,  and  in  both 
cases  the  opposition  is  quickly  and  simply  effected. 
This  is  only  when  an  opposition  is  required  ;  in 
easy  turns,  as  out  of  one  wide  road  into  another, 
with  no  vehicles  in  the  way,  a  point  of  the  lead-rein 
is  all  that  is  required,  and  if  sufficient  point  is  taken, 
steadying  *  the  team  with  the  left  hand  will  keep  the 
wheelers  in  their  places.  If,  however,  the  turn  is 
into  a  narrow  gateway,  especially  to  the  right,  the 
coach  will  be  close  to  the  corner  or  to  the  gate-post, 
and  the  wheelers,  unless  properly  controlled,  will 
be  almost  certain  to  turn  too  short,  especially  if  it 
is  a  turn  with  which  they  are  familiar. 

Generally  the  most  difficult  place  to  enter  grace- 
fully is  one's  own  gateway. 

*  Steadying  a  team  is  an  accepted  coaching  expression  for  holding 
the  horses  back  somewhat. 


3 


20  DOWN-HILL  CH.   XIV 


This  use  of  an  opposition  was  called  by  the  older 
coachmen  pointing  the  leaders  and  shooting  the 
wheelers,  and  must  have  been  very  necessary  in 
entering  the  cramped  archways  of  old  coaching  inns 
out  of  narrow  streets. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add  that  for  such 
turns  all  possible  room  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street  must  be  taken  ;  but  sometimes  it  is  not  to  be 
had. 

In  turning  a  corner  up-hill,  particularly  if  the  road 
beyond  the  turn  is  still  steeper  than  that  on  which 
the  coach  is,  it  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  let  out 
the  outside  lead-rein  instead  of  making  a  point  with 
the  inside  one,  so  as  to  encourage  the  leaders  to 
make  some  extra  exertion. 

Down-Hill. — It  is  obvious  that  the  leaders  should 
never  have  their  traces  tight  when  going  down-hill, 
and  judgement  is  required  to  know  how  much  to 
take  them  back.  They  must  not  come  back  far 
enough  to  let  the  bars,  or  the  pole,  touch  them. 
They  should  have  their  traces  just  hanging,  and  the 
bars  entirely  clear  of  their  hocks,  and  this  position 
should  be  attained  immediately  before  the  coach 
begins  to  descend,  since  few  things  look  worse  than 
to  see  the  leaders  pulling  for  several  yards  after  the 
coach  has  be^un  its  descent. 

It  will  not  be  necessary,  however,  to  shorten  the 
lead-reins  always,  or  much.  Usually  a  general  pull 
upon  all  four  reins  will  bring  back  the  leaders  suffi- 


CH.   XIV  SHORTENING    THE    REINS  32 1 

ciently  ;  it  will  depend  largely  upon  how  the  leaders 
and  wheelers  are  working  in   relation  to  each  other. 


In  a  well-assorted  team,  the  leaders  should  be 
somewhat  more  free  than  the  wheelers,  and  their 
reins  will  be  therefore  a  little  tighter  than  those  of 
the  wheelers,  so  that  a  general  tightening  of  all  the 
reins  will  be  sufficient  to  shorten  the  lead-reins. 
Should  the  wheelers  be  pulling  and  the  leaders,  in 
consequence,  have  slack  reins,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  take  up  the  lead-reins  a  little. 

Even  with  very  light-mouthed  horses,  however, 
all  the  reins  should  be  tight  enough  to  enable  the 
coachman  to  '  feel '  the  horses'  mouths  all  the  time. 

The  horses  should  always  be  'in  their  bridles,' 
or,  in  other  words,  up  to  their  bits  ;  else  they  will 
not  instantly  feel,  as  they  should,  the  slightest  in- 
dication from  the  hand.  This  is  not  at  all  incom- 
patible with  slight  pressure,  and  constitutes  that 
lightness  of  hand  which  is  so  desirable. 

As  a  general  principle,  after  the  reins  are  once 
adjusted  to  the  proper  place  in  the  left  hand,  they 
should  remain  there  unmoved  and  held  tigJitly  in 
the  bend  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  as  if  they 
were  fastened  togetJier  at  that  point,  in  front  of  which 
all  the  fino-erino-  must  be  done. 

The  reason  for  pushing  in  any  or  all  of  the  reins 

from  the  front  is,   that  when  the   right   hand  is  in 

that  position  it  is  just  where  it  is  needed  to  make 

any   movement,    or   to  do  any  fingering  ;    while  be- 

21 


32  2  SHORTENING    THE    REINS  CH.  XIV 

hind  the  left  hand,  it  is  out  of  the  way  and  has  to 
be  brought  forward  to  be  of  use. 

The  fingering  to  be  good,  must  be  very  quick  ; 
a  single  second  lost  may  mar  it. 

In  driving  at  night,  it  is  more  difficult  to  select  a 
rein  behind  the  hand  than  to  find  it  in  front. 

When,  however,  all  the  reins  are  to  be  shortened 
together,  they  may  be  taken  between  the  first  and 
second  fingers  of  the  right  hand  behind  the  left,  and 
the  left  slipped  forward  on  the  reins  to  its  new 
place.  It  would  be  difficult  to  do  this  from  the 
front,  especially  if  a  good  deal  of  shortening  is 
necessary,  because  the  reins  are  too  flexible  to  be 
pushed  readily,  and  they  separate  when  they  get  a 
short  distance  from  the  left  hand,  so  that  the  right 
hand  cannot  take  hold  of  them  altogether. 

As  examples  that  authorities  do  not  always  agree 
as  to  what  is  proper,  the  following  extracts  are 
given  : — 

Corbett  (p.  249)  says  :  '  But  I  have  seen  what  is 
'  even  worse.  I  once  beheld  a  gentleman  perform- 
'  ing  in  Hyde  Park,  who,  finding  himself  seriously 
'  incommoded  with  the  slack  of  his  reins,  stretched 
'  out  his  right  hand  over  the  left,  seizing  the  reins 
'  in  front  of  it,  and  then,  like  sailors  hauling  a  rope 
'  hand  over  hand,  proceeded  to  pass  his  left  hand 
'  to  the  front  and  take  hold  of  them  in  front  of  the 
1  right  hand.  I  have  frequently  seen  this  manoeuvre 
'  practised  by  coachmen  driving  one  or  a  pair,  but 
'  only   this   once   did    I    see   the   trick   played   on   a 


CH.  XIV  CENTRE    REINS    SLIPPING  323 

'  four-horse  box,  and  I  should  think,  when  it  was 
'  completed,  that  the  reins  must  have  very  much 
'resembled  a  pack  of  cards  well  shuffled  and  ad- 
'  mirably  calculated  to  land  the  coach  in  the  ditch 
'  after  dark.' 

'  Nimrod'  (Essays,  Malet,  p.  345)  says  :  'There 
'  is  an  excellent  way  of  handling  reins  not  gen- 
'  erally  adopted.  That  is,  when  you  want  to  take 
'a  pull  at  your  horses,  to  open  the  fingers  of  the 
'  right  hand  and  to  put  the  reins  into  them.  Then 
'  pass  the  left  hand,  with  the  fingers  open,  in  front 
'  of   the   right   hand,    and   receive   the   reins   into   it 

O 

'  again.  Thus  you  get  extra  power  over  your  team 
'  without  disturbing  their  mouths.'  * 

Who  shall  decide  ?  At  all  events,  it  is  well  to 
have  charity  toward  those  who  think  differently 
from  ourselves. 

One  of  the  first  troubles  that  the  beginner  will 
encounter  is  that  of  having  his  centre  reins,  the 
off  lead  and  the  near  wheel,  slip  through  his 
fingers.  He  will  discover  that  this  has  happened 
by  finding  his  leaders  going  to  the  near  side  of  the 
road,  while  his  wheelers  are  going  to  the  off  side, 
and  it  need  hardly  be  said  that  at  all  times,  except 
in  turning,  the  horses  must  be  exactly  in  front  of 
each  other  and  the  team  perfectly  straight.  This 
inequality  of  the  reins  must  be  corrected  by  push- 
ing the  two  centre  reins  in   from  the   front,  and  it 

*  This  is  what  French  writers  call  la  reprise  des  guides. 


324  STOPPING  CH.   XIV 

must  be  prevented  by  holding  the  edges  of  the 
reins  more  tightly  in  the  bend  of  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers  (see  p.  300). 

When  a  team  pulls  so  hard  as  to  be  nearly 
unmanageable,  it  usually  happens  that  these  two 
centre  reins  slip,  and  the  leaders  get  far  over  to 
the  left.  For  this,  the  remedy,  for  the  moment,  is 
to  take  these  two  reins  in  front  with  the  right  hand, 
and  pull  the  team  up  by  them,  which  will,  at  least, 
have  the  result  of  getting  the  horses  straight  and 
of  keeping  them  in  the  road. 

With  new  reins,  this  slipping  is  a  frequent  trouble. 

Stopping  ;  Pulling-Up. — In  stopping  straight, — 
that  is,  not  inclining  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left, 
— it  is  only  necessary  to  put  the  right  hand  on  all 
the  reins,  with  the  third  finger  between  the  near 
and  off  pairs  of  reins,  and  to  pull  slowly  with 
both  hands,  raising'-  the  left  higher  than  the  right 
(Fig.  146). 

The  right  hand  must  be  put  far  enough  forward 
to  enable  it  to  be  brought  back  the  distance  neces- 
sary to  stop  the  team  without  disturbing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  body,  but  it  should  not  be  advanced  so 
far,  as  to  require  the  body  to  lean  forward  to  make 
the  motion.  Above  all,  in  pulling-up,  the  coach- 
man should  never  lean  backward,  but  he  may 
straighten  his  legs  ;  all  the  pull  should  be  taken 
without  moving  the  body,  and  by  raising  the  left 
hand   and   lowering   the    right.      If    this   cannot   be 


CH.   XIV 


STOPPING 


325 


done,    it  shows  that  the  reins  have  been  too  loose 
before  commencing  to  pull-up. 

With  very  free  leaders  it  is  sometimes  well  to 
bring-  them  back  a  little  before  making-  a  halt,  since 
the  wheelers  can  then  more  readily  stop  the  coach 
at  the  last  moment  ;  but  this  must  be  done  with 
caution  ;   if  the  leaders  stop  too  soon,  the  pole  will 


Fig.    146.     stopping. 


run  into  them,  the  coachman  not  always  remember- 
ing that  the  coach  keeps  running  on.  This  should 
be  especially  borne  in  mind  at  a  place  where  the 
horses  expect  to  stop,  as  at  a  change,  or  at  the 
end  of  a  drive,  when  the  leaders  will  often  want 
to  stop  before  the  exact  spot  is  reached,  and  the 
slightest  check  to  them  then  will  precipitate  their 
action.     Pulling-up  with  the   leaders   huddled   back 


^26  STOPPING  CH.   XIV 


0 


upon  the  bars  and  the  point  of  the  pole,  is  ex- 
tremely awkward. 

In  stopping,  and  at  the  same  time  inclining  to  one 
side,  as  in  coming  from  the  middle  of  the  street  to 
the  sidewalk,  a  point  should  be  taken  with  the  two 
reins  on  the  proper  side  (Figs.  136,  137),  and  the 
right  hand  kept  free  to  use  the  whip.  This  is 
especially  necessary  in  coming  up  to  an  accustomed 
stopping  place,  since  some  one  of  the  horses  is 
likely  to  stop  too  soon  and  may  require  to  be 
touched  with  the  whip.  At  the  moment  of  stop- 
ping, the  right  hand  can  be  placed  on  the  reins  in 
front  of  the  points  to  finish  the  movement,  and  the 
points  then  allowed  to  slip  out. 

The  stop  should  not  be  made  abruptly,  but  the 
coach  should  glide  to  its  place  and  come  to  rest, 
with  a  gradual  diminution  of  speed,  exactly  at  the 
proper  spot.  Coming  up  at  full  speed  and  pulling 
the  horses  on  their  haunches,  is  bad  coaching,  and 
happily  has  pretty  much  gone  out  of  fashion,  even 
with  pair-horse  coachmen.  A  coach  is  a  heavy 
vehicle  for  two  horses  to  stop  by  the  back  of  their 
necks, — for  the  leaders  can  do  nothing  to  assist, 
— and  if  it  runs  on  beyond  its  place  the  conse- 
quences may  be  disastrous,  especially  on  wood  or 
asphalt  pavement,  which  is  apt  to  be  slippery.  Too 
much  speed  in  coming  up  may  necessitate  the  use 
of  the  brake,  which  is  very  'bad  form,'  because 
it  shows  that  the  coachman  cannot  stop  the  coach 
with  his  horses.     The  rattle,  sometimes  heard  at  a 


CH.   XIV  GETTING    DOWN  327 

halt,  of  the  brake-handle  over  the  teeth  of  the 
rack,  is  enough  to  set  those  of  a  coaching  man  on 
edge. 

Getting  Down. — After  the  coach  has  come  to 
rest,  the  brake  should  be  put  on  very  quietly  and  as 
hard  as  possible  (see  discussion  of  this,  further  on), 
and  the  coachman,  shifting  his  reins  to  the  right 
hand,  in  which  he  retains  his  whip,  should  get  down 
immediately,  in  exactly  the  reverse  way  from  that  in 
which  he  got  up.  He  tucks  his  reins,  all  kept  closely 
together,  into  the  tug-buckle  bearer,  in  the  manner 
shown  in  Fig.  127,  and  lays  his  whip  across  the 
backs  of  the  wheelers  behind  the  pads. 

He  should  get  down  immediately,  because  there  is 
nothing  more  for  him  to  do  on  the  box,  and  because 
the  head  groom,  or  the  guard,  has  to  wait  for  him 
to  do  so,  before  putting  up  the  ladder  for  the  pas- 
sengers to  descend.  On  a  public-coach,  the  profes- 
sional coachman  who  is  to  drive  away  from  the 
office,  should  be  standing  at  the  wheelers'  off  side 
as  the  coach  comes  up  and  receive  the  reins  and 
whip  from  the  person  who  has  been  driving,  but  the 
horse-keeper  should  not  do  so  ;  he  ought  to  be  at 
the  wheelers'  heads.  With  a  private  coach,  if  the 
head  coachman  has  come  from  the  stable  to  drive 
the  coach  away,  it  is  he  who  receives  the  reins  and 
whip,  and,  keeping  them  in  his  hand,  mounts  the 
box  as  soon  as  the  people  are  all  off  the  coach. 
If  the  head  coachman  has  been  on  the  coach,  or  is 


o 


28  GETTING    DOWN  CH.   XIV 


occupied  with  the  ladder,  or  if  one  of  the  grooms  is 
to  drive  away,  the  reins  remain  tucked  into  the 
harness  until  they  are  taken  out  by  the  person  who 
is  to  drive  away,  and,  if  they  have  been  kept  to- 
gether when  tucked  in,  they  can  be  seized  exactly  in 
their  proper  places  when  taken  up  (p.  287). 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  authorities 
as  to  whether  the  brake  should  be  put  on  after  the 
coach  stops,  on  a  level  ;  all  agree  that  it  should  be 
on  if  a  coach  is  standing  on  an  up  or  down  grade. 
I  must  express  myself  strongly  in  favour  of  putting 
it  on  after  stopping,  since  there  are  good  reasons 
in  favour  of  so  doing-  and  none  that  seems  to  me 
of  any  real  force,  against  it. 

In  getting  down  from  a  coach,  the  passengers 
cause  a  little  shaking  of  the  vehicle,  which  is  apt  to 
produce  a  slight  forward  movement,  and  this,  com- 
municated to  the  horses,  causes  them  to  step  for- 
ward, with  the  result  of  displacing  the  ladder  while 
some  one  may  be  descending  ;  this,  the  brake  pre- 
vents. At  a  change,  the  coachman  is  on  the  ground 
and  frequently  women  only  are  left  on  the  top  of  the 
coach.  The  consequences,  should  the  horses  get 
away  under  these  circumstances,  might  be  frightful, 
and  they  are  very  much  less  likely  to  do  so  with  the 
brake  on.  At  a  change,  the  wheelers  just  put-to, 
ma)-  push  over  the  horse-keeper  at  their  heads,  or 
there  may  be  some  carelessness  in  holding  them. 
Several  instances  are  on  record  of  accidents  of  this 
kind,  and  I  once  witnessed  one,  fortunately  attended 


CH.  XIV  TAKING    DOWN    THE    WHIP  329 

with  no  serious  results,  which  made  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  me.  For  a  public-coach,  there  should 
always  be  a  block  with  a  long  handle,  ready  to  be 
put  under  the  wheel,  at  the  changes,  but  this  is 
sometimes  forgotten,  and  a  habit  of  putting  on  the 
brake  diminishes  danger.  The  only  reason  for  not 
putting  it  on  appears  to  be  that  it  is  thought  to 
look  rather  slow. 

Corbett  (p.  55)  says,  apropos  of  an  accident 
which  happened  from  the  horses'  running  away  from 
a  change  place  at  Colchester,  July  1839  :  '  Probably 
'  this  accident  would  not  have  occurred  if  the  coach 
'  had  been  fitted  with  a  brake,  which  the  coachman 
4  ought  to  put  on  tight  before  leaving  his  box.' 

What  should  be  done  with  the  whip,  on  getting 
down,  is  also  a  good  deal  discussed.  On  some 
public-coaches  the  coachman  throws  it  across  the 
horses'  backs  before  getting  down  ;  this  requires 
practice,  and  the  whip  is  very  likely  to  fall  on  the 
ground,  and  get  muddv,  or  broken  ;  on  others,  the 
coachman  throws  it  to  a  man  waiting  to  receive  it. 
It  ought  not  to  be  put  into  the  whip  socket,  or 
bucket,  which  indeed  many  coaches  very  properly 
are  without.  In  the  socket,  it  is  in  the  way  of  get- 
ting up  and  down,  and  is  likely  to  be  broken  by 
some  one's  taking-  hold  of  it.  It  should  be  taken 
down  by  the  coachman  ;  and  there  seems,  on  the 
whole,  no  better  way  of  disposing  of  it  than  to  lay 
it  across  the  wheelers'  backs,   unless,   as  has  been 


330      OTHER  METHODS  OF  HOLDING  THE  REINS     CH.   XIV 

before  mentioned,  a  near  wheeler  dislikes  having 
the  thong  hanging  against  him,  in  which  case  it  must 
be  disposed  of  by  standing  it,  with  its  butt  on  the 
ground,  behind,  and  leaning  against,  the  lamp  iron 
on  the  off  side  of  the  coach. 

At  a  change,  it  is  usually  kept  in  the  hand,  unless 
the  coachman  assists  with  the  horses. 

Other  Methods  of  Holding  the  Reins. — The 
method  of  holding  the  reins  and  of  fingering,  thus 
far  described,  may  be  properly  called  the  EnglisJi 
method,  since,  with  slight  variations,  it  is  that  which 
has  been  in  use  in  England  for  at  least  a  century, 
the  only  essential  change  having  been  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  lone  wheel-rein  for  the  short  one,  de- 
scribed  on  p.  229.  Although  this  method  is  accepted 
as  the  best,  there  are  others  which  should  be  noticed. 


Fig.    147.       FULL  HAND. 

In  what  is  called  the  'full  hand,'  Fig.  147,  the 
order  of  the  reins  is  the  same  as  in  the  Enolish 
method,    but  instead  of  there   being-  two   reins   be- 


CH.   XIV 


CONTINENTAL    METHODS 


TIT 
JO1 


ITALIAN   VETTURINO. 


ITALIAN   VETTURINO. 


tween  the  first  and  second  fingers  there  is  a  rein 
in  each  space.  The  reins  are 
entirely  separated,  but  the  off 
wheel-rein,  on  top  of  the  little 
finger,  is  not  firmly  held  owing 
to  the  want  of  strength  in  that 
finger,  which  is  a  serious  objec- 
tion to  the  method.  This  used 
to  be  the  manner  of  holding  the 
reins  in  France  not  long  ago, 
and  is  given  as  being  the  proper 
way,  in  Montigny's  Manuel,  pub- 
lished in  1865. 

Among  the  professional  coach- 
men of  Switzerland  and  Italy, 
where  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
four-horse  driving-  to  diligences 
and  private  travelling-carriages, 
many  varieties  of  fingering  can 
be  seen,  and  the  diagrams  (Fig. 
148)  show  several  methods  which 
are  certainly  widely  different  ;  it 
will  be  noticed,  however,  that  in 
none  of  them  is  there  a  rein  over 
the  little  finger.  The  reins  are 
never  used  in  both  hands  except 
for  some  momentary  purpose. 

The  two  Italians  (whose  meth- 
ods are  illustrated  by  diagrams 
A  and  B)  are  experienced  drivers  and  masters  of 


© 


DILIGENCE.  ST  MORITZ. 


D 


DILIGENCE.  ST  MORITZ. 

Fig.    148. 


332 


CONTINENTAL    METHODS 


CH.   XIV 


their  art.  The  arrangement  of  the  reins  shown  at 
B  is  the  most  illogical  of  the  four  ;  yet  it  is  that  of 
an  extremely  good  coachman. 

The  method  of  the  St.  Moritz  diligence,  C  (also 
shown  in  Fig.  149),  approaches  nearest  to  the 
English  in  having  the  lead-reins  adjoining  and  the 
wheel-reins  adjoining  ;  in  all  the  others,  the  near 
reins  are  next  to  each  other  and  the  off  reins  next 


Fig.     149.       ST.  MORITZ  DILIGENCE. 

to  each  other  ;  in  the  American  method  (see  suc- 
ceeding pages)  this  latter  arrangement  is  adopted, 
as  is  inevitable  in  all  two-handed  driving.  In  the 
English  method  more  importance  is  attached  to 
being  able  to  regulate  the  work  of  the  two  pairs 
of  horses,  and  of  all  the  methods,  it  is  the  best 
adapted  to  fine  work,  inasmuch  as  the  reins  are 
in  the  positions  most  convenient  for  making  the 
points  both  for  the  leaders  alone,  and  for  leaders 
and  wheelers  combined,  and  for  taking  off  the 
lead-reins  in  order  to  equalise  the  work  of  the 
horses. 


CH.   XIV  AMERICAN    METHOD  7,3$ 

As  an  instance  of  how  many  different  ways  of 
doing  the  same  thing  may  be  suggested,  the  follow- 
ing method  given  in  Jouffret's  Conduite  en  Guides 
deserves  mention  :  The  near  lead-rein  is  over  the 
first  finger,  the  end  coming  out  in  front,  between 
that  finder  and  the  next ;  the  near  wheel  is  on  the 
second  finger,  coming  out  in  front,  below  that  finger  ; 
the  off  lead-rein  is  over  the  third,  and  the  off  wheel 
over  the  little  finger,  both  reins  hanging  down.  A 
worse  arrangement  of  the  reins  for  any  useful  pur- 
pose it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine. 

In  Walker's  Manly  Exercises,  ed.  1835,  a  plate 
by  Alkex  shows  the  near  lead  and  the  near  wheel- 
reins  together  on  top  of  the  fore-finger,  but  another 
plate  in  the  same  edition  shows  them  in  the  accepted 
position,  although  the  back  of  the  hand  is  horizontal 
instead  of  vertical.  The  first  drawing  is  possibly  a 
mistake  of  the  artist  or  the  engraver  ;  there  is  no 
mention  of  that  method  in  the  text. 

American  Method. — An  American  stage-driver 
holds  his  reins  in  the  manner  shown  in  Figs.  1 50 
and  151.  The  near  lead-rein  is  on  top  of,  and 
the  near  wheel-rein  underneath,  the  fourth  finger 
of  the  left  hand,  the  ends  coming  up  in  the  hand 
and  falline  backward  over  the  thumb.  The  off 
lead-rein  is  on  top  of,  and  the  off  wheel-rein  un- 
derneath, the  second  finger  of  the  right  hand, 
the  ends  hanoine  downward  in  the  interior  of  the 
hand. 


5  34 


OvV 


AMERICAN    METHOD 


CH.   XIV 


When  the  coachman  wishes  to  take  all  the  reins 
in   one  hand,  or  to  '  club'  them,  he  passes  those  in 


FlG.      150.        AMERICAN   METHOD. 


FlG.     151.        AMERICAN  METHOD. 

his  ri^ht  hand  into  his  left,  so  that  the  off  lead-rein 


CH.   XIV  AMERICAN    METHOD  335 

is  on  top  of,  and  the  off  wheel-rein  underneath,  the 
first  finger,  the  ends  hanging  down  through  the 
hand.  The  reins  in  this  way  cross  in  the  hand,  and 
can  be  pressed  upon  each  other  very  tightly  so  as 
to  prevent  their  slipping.  The  racing  jockey  often 
crosses  the  reins  in  his  hand  in  the  same  way.  With 
thick  fur  gloves,  such  as  are  worn  by  stage-drivers 
in  the  mountains  in  winter,  this  hold  of  the  reins  is 
strong  without  being  fatiguing. 

For  six  horses,  in  the  American  fashion,  the 
order  is  as  follows  :  in  the  left  hand,  the  near  wheel 
under  the  fourth  fino-er,  the  near  swino-  under  the 
third,  and  the  near  lead  under  the  second,  the  ends 
P'oing  up  ;  in  the  right  hand,  the  off  lead  over  the 
first  fino-er,  the  off  swino-  over  the  second,  and  the 
off  wheel  over  the  third,  the  ends  hanging  down. 

The  American  stage-driver  drives  habitually  with 
both  hands,  the  whip  being  held  in  the  right,  close 
to  the  butt,  and  resting  on  the  reins. 

In  turning  a  long  corner  the  near  or  off  reins  are 
frequently  pulled  to  the  proper  side  without  changing 
their  relative  lengths,  an  operation  called  '  chop- 
ping' ;  but  in  turning  sharper  corners,  the  hands 
are  brought  near  together,  and  with  the  thumb  and 
finger  of  one  hand,  the  lead-rein  on  the  proper  side 
is  shortened  by  pushing  or  pulling  it  back  ;  it  being 
allowed  to  slip  out  after  the  turn  is  completed. 
This  serves  the  same  purpose  as  making  a  point. 

If  the  road  is  bad  or  up-hill  and  the  turn  not  very 
sharp,   chopping  is  generally  used,   as  it  does   not 


t  -<f\ 


SIX    HORSES 


CH.   XIV 


take  the  leaders  back,  but  permits  them  to  pull 
through  the  whole  turn. 

For  the  same  reason,  a  coachman  turning  on  a 
steep  place  will  let  out  the  rein  of  the  leader  on 
the  outer-side  of  the  turn,  instead  of  taking  up  the 
inner-side  rein,  so  as  to  permit  the  leaders  to  do 
still  more  work  (see  p.  320). 

For  further  comments  upon  the  American  method, 
see  Chapter  XX. 

Fingering  for  Six  Horses. — With  six  horses,  ac- 
cording to  the  English  method,  the  reins  are  held  as 
shown  in  Fig.  152  ;  the  lead-reins  and  those  of  the 
swing,  or  middle  horses,  in  the  same  places  as  those 


Fig.  152. 


SIX   HORSES. 


of  the  leaders  and  wheelers  of  four  horses,  and 
those  of  the  wheelers,  which  may  be  considered  as 
a  pair  added,  are  placed  below  all  the  others,  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  third  finger.  The  lead  points 
are  made  exactly  as  with   four  horses,   and   if   the 


CH.  XIV  TURNING    AND    BACKING  $57 

swing-reins  require  pointing,  it  is  done  in  their 
proper  spaces.  In  fact,  usually  only  the  lead  and 
wheel  horses  are  driven  ;  the  swing  horses  follow  in 
their  proper  places,  of  necessity,  although  in  making 
sharp  turns  they  sometimes  require  guiding. 

For  six-horse  driving  the  leaders  must  work 
evenly  and  be  quite  free,  since  they  cannot  be 
reached  by  the  whip.  In  making  a  turn  they  must 
be  held  back  somewhat,  but,  if  a  chain  is  used  be- 
tween the  swing  horses  instead  of  a  pole  (see  p. 
278),  they  must  not  be  so  held  back  as  to  permit  the 
bars  to  drop  too  low. 

When  more  than  four  horses  are  required,  three 
harnessed  abreast  on  the  lead,  with  two  at  the  wheel, 
will  do  nearly  as  much  work  as  three  pairs,  because 
more  easily  handled. 

Turning  and  Backing. — The  space  in  which  a 
coach  and  four  horses  can  be  turned,  depends  on 
the  angle  at  which  the  fore  carriage  will  lock,  and 
on  the  length  of  the  perch.  The  angle  of  lock  is  that 
made  by  the  pole  with  the  centre  line  of  the  coach, 
when  the  front  wheel  is  turned  as  far  as  it  will  go 
against  the  body,  or  against  the  stop  which  prevents 
it  from  touching  the  body.  In  a  coach,  it  is  usually 
about  twenty  degrees,  rarely  as  much  as  twenty-two. 
The  larger  it  is,  the  smaller  the  circle  in  which  the 
coach  will  turn. 

As  breaks  are  built  of  many  different  patterns, 
their  angles  of  lock  vary,  but  they  usually  lock  much 

22 


1  1 


8 


ANGLE    OF    LOCK 


CH.   XIV 


further  round  than  a  coach,  and  consequently  can 
be  turned  in  a  smaller  space. 

By  the  following  method  the  angle  of  lock  of  a 
coach  is  found  by  a  simple  measurement,  without 
any  computation  : — 

Place  the  coach  on  a  level  floor  and  block  the 
hind  wheels,  put  the  pole  in  its  place,  and  mark 
upon  it  a  point  ii  ft.  8  in.  (140  inches)  from  the 
perch-bolt.  With  a  pole  of  the  usual  length  this 
point  will  be  near  its  end.  Put  the  fore-carriage 
hard  on   the  lock  (Fig.  153),  and  with  a  plumb-bob, 


Fig.   153. 

or  any  convenient  substitute  therefor,  drop  a  line 
to  the  floor  from  the  point  marked  on  the  pole 
and  mark  that  spot  on  the  floor  ;  then,  taking  care 
not  to  disturb  the  position  of  the  hind  wheels, 
put  the  fore-carriage  on  the  other  lock  and  mark 
on  the  floor  the  spot  vertically  under  the  point 
on  the  pole  ;  measure  the  direct  distance  between 
the  two  marks  ;  the  angle  given  in  the  following 
Table,  opposite  to  that  distance,  is  the  angle  of 
lock. 


CH.  XIV 


ANGLE    OF    LOCK 


339 


Example :  The  first  position  of  the  pole  being 
indicated  by  the  black  lines,  and  the  second  by  the 
dotted  lines,  the  coarse  dotted  line  will  be  the 
distance,  =  8  feet,  and  the  angle  of  lock  will  be  20 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  central  position  of  the 
pole. 

Table  for  Angle  of  Lock.     Point  on  Pole  ii  Ft.  8  In. 


Ft. 

In. 

Degrees. 

Ft. 

In. 

Degrees. 

Ft. 

In. 

Degrees. 

6 

O 

15 

7 

5 

isy2 

8 

9 

22 

6 

3 

i5# 

7 

7 

19 

8 

1 1 

22y2 

6 

5 

16 

7 

9 

19^ 

9 

1 

23 

6 

7 

16^ 

8 

0 

20 

9 

3 

23^ 

6 

10 

17 

8 

2 

20^ 

9 

6 

24 

7 

0 

17^ 

8 

4 

21 

9 

8 

■2-AYz 

7 

2 

18 

8 

6 

21}^ 

9 

10 

25 

The  length  of  the  perch  also  affects  the  space  in 
which  the  coach  will  turn  :  the  shorter  the  perch  the 
less  will  be  the  width  required. 

The  following  Table  shows  how  much  the  diam- 
eter  of  the  circle  made  by  the  outer  front  wheel  is 
affected  by  different  angles,  and  lengths  of  perch  : — 

Perch  6  Ft.  6  In. 


Angle    of   lock 

Diameter  of  circle,   ft.   in.    .    .    . 

20° 

43  ° 

22° 

39  9 

24° 
37   1 

30° 
3i  0 

Perch  6  Feet. 

Diameter  of  circle,   ft.   in.    .    .    . 

20° 

40  1 

22° 
36   11 

24° 
34  9 

30° 
29  0 

34°  TURNING    AND    BACKING  CH.  XIV 

With  a  coach  locking  at  an  angle  of  20  degrees 
and  having  a  perch  6  ft.  6  in.  long,  a  turn  can  be 
made  in  a  street  which  measures  44  feet  in  width 
without  the  outside  leader  touching  the  kerb  ;  if 
the  leaders  are  pulled  well  to  the  inside  of  the 
turn  before  reaching  the  kerb,  it  may  be  done  in 
a  few  inches  less. 

Fig.  A,  Plate  XXVIII., *  shows  the  tracks  of  the 
wheels  and  the  position  of  the  horses'  feet  in  such  a 
turn.  The  dotted  lines  are  the  tracks  of  the  front 
wheels  and  the  full  lines  those  of  the  hind  wheels  ; 
the  round  foot-prints  those  of  the  fore-feet  and  the 
longer  ones  those  of  the  hind-feet. 

If  there  were  no  leaders,  the  space  required  would 
be  only  a  few  inches  less. 

To  turn  in  a  road  of  less  width  than  44  feet, 
backing  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the  narrowest 
street  in  which  a  turn  can  be  made  with  a  coach 
that  locks  at  the  usual  angle,  20  degrees,  is  24  feet 
between  the  kerbs. 

The  manoeuvre  must  be  executed  as  follows  : — 

The  coach  should  be  brought  into  a  position 
about   16  feet   from  the  off   side  kerb  and  parallel 


*  The  diameter  of  the  circle  in  which  a  coach  will  turn  may  be 
thus  found.  In  Fig.  A,  the  lines  of  the  front  and  hind  axles,  when 
on  the  lock,  meet  in  the  centre  of  the  circle,  the  perch  is  the  sine  of 
the  angle  of  lock,  and  the  distance  from  the  perch-bolt  to  the  centre 
is  the  radius,  to  which  half  the  length  of  the  axle  must  be  added  to 
get  the  radius  of  the  circle  of  the  outside  front  wheel.  The  angle 
of  lock  is  the  same  as  the  angle  at  the  centre. 


PLATE    XXVIII 


TURNING     DIAGRAMS 


CH.  XIV  TURNING    AND    BACKING  34 1 

to  it  (Fig.  B,  Plate  XXVIII.),  the  horses  turned  to 
the  right  until  the  coach  is  on  the  lock,  and  then 
backed  until  the  hind  wheels  touch  the  kerb,  which 
they  will  both  do  if  the  coach  has  been  kept  hard  on 
the  lock.  The  leaders  must  then  be  drawn  to  the 
left,  and,  in  a  street  24  feet  wide,  they  can  pass 
the  kerb  without  touching  it.  As  the  leaders  can 
be  brought  back  more  than  a  foot  behind  the  posi- 
tion  which  they  occupy  when  straightened  out,  it  is 
possible  to  squeeze  round  in  23  feet.  About  the 
time  that  the  leaders  reach  the  kerb,  the  wheelers 
must  be  pulled  to  the  left,  not  letting  them  go  for- 
ward until  the  coach  is  hard  on  the  other  lock,  and 
the  leaders  having  been  kept  turning,  the  coach  can 
then  be  drawn  off  in  the  new  direction,  which  will 
be  parallel  to  the  kerb  and  16  feet  from  it. 

In  making  a  turn  in  this  way,  the  coach  is  backed 
through  an  entire  quarter  circle.  If  the  street  is 
wider,  say  30  feet,  it  is  better  to  draw  close  to 
the  right-hand  kerb,  and  then  to  drive  obliquely 
across  the  street  (Fig.  C,  Plate  XXVIII.)  nearly 
on  the  left  lock,  until  the  leaders'  feet  reach  the 
kerb  ;  the  coach  will  stand  partly  across  the  street. 
Then  putting  the  horses  over  to  the  right  until  the 
coach  is  on  the  right  lock,  they  are  backed  until  the 
hind  wheels  touch  the  kerb,  which  they  will  soon 
do,  since  before  beginning  to  back,  the  coach  was 
already  partly  in  the  proper  position.  In  a  30-foot 
street  it  will  be  necessary  to  back  through  less  than 
an   eighth  of   a  circle  instead   of   a  whole   quarter, 


342  TURNING    AND    BACKING  CH.  XIV 

which  is  important,  since  the  majority  of  horses  dis- 
like backing  ;  they  have  also  to  back  only  on  a  part 
of  the  street  which  inclines  toward  the  gutter,  so 
that  the  coach  runs  down-hill. 

In  Fig.  C,  the  leaders  could  be  brought  back 
somewhat  more  on  approaching  the  kerb,  so  that 
the  coach  could  go  further  on,  and  then  on  being 
backed,  it  would  come  more  nearly  square  to  the 
kerb  behind  it.  The  letter  '  a'  shows  the  first  posi- 
tion of  the  horses;  'b,'  the  second  position  just 
before  backing. 

When,  therefore,  the  street  is  only  24  feet  wide, 
the  movement  must  be  commenced  parallel  to  the 
kerb  and  about  16  feet  from  it,  in  order  to  get 
round,  but  for  a  width  of  30  feet  or  more,  it  is  better 
to  brine  the  coach  somewhat  across  the  road  before 
going  on  the  lock,  so  as  to  diminish  the  distance 
through  which  it  must  be  backed  ;  in  a  width  of 
less  than  30  feet  there  is  no  advantage  in  obliquing 
across  the  road,  since  the  coach  will  not  go  far  enough 
away  from  the  kerb  (on  account  of  the  leaders' 
reaching  the  other  side)  to  back  square  against  it, 
and  the  movement  would  have  to  be  repeated. 

If  the  coachman,  starting  to  make  a  simple  turn 
in  a  44-foot  street,  finds  that  he  is  not  going  to  get 
round  without  backing,  he  should  commence  his 
backing  movement  as  early  as  possible,  so  as  to  get 
the  advantage  of  the  slope  of  the  side  of  the  road. 
It  is  difficult  for  the  horses  to  back  a  coach  up  even 
a  slight  grade. 


CH.  XIV  TURNING    AND    BACKING  343 

In  the  movements  thus  described,  the  coach  is 
supposed  to  be  put  on  the  lock  by  one  movement 
of  the  front  axle  from  a  straight  line,  but  in  turning 
into  a  curve  from  a  straight  line,  until  the  constant 
angle  Qf  the  axles  is  reached,  the  hind  wheels  will 
follow  the  front  ones,  not  in  a  circle,  but  in  a 
curve  called  the  '  tractrix,'  because  it  results  from 
their  being  drawn  by  the  front  wheels  by  means 
of  the  perch,  and,  on  returning  from  a  circle  to  a 
straieht  line,  it  will  be  some  time  after  the  front 
wheels  have  taken  the  straight  line  before  the  hind 
wheels  will  take  it.  The  further  apart  the  axles 
are,  the  more  marked  this  will  be,  and  this  is  a 
reason  why  a  long  geared  carriage,  like  a  landau, 
runs  harder  than  a  short  one,  after  making  a  turn, 
the  hind  wheels  coming  into  the  straight  line  very 
slowly. 

In  backing  movements,  the  mistake  is  usually 
made  of  not  turning  the  front  wheels  enough  to 
one  side,  and  the  coach  does  not,  therefore,  in  its 
movement,  respond  to  the  expectations  of  the 
coachman. 

In  driving  up  to  a  door,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
back  into  a  positio'n  closer  to  the  kerb  than  could 
be  taken  at  first,  owing  to  some  obstacle's  being  in 
the  way,  and  it  will  be  found,  that  unless  a  very 
decided  anele  is  made  with  the  front  wheels,  the 
result  will  be  unsatisfactory  and  very  little  ground 
will  have  been  gained  in  the  proper  direction. 

Should  there  be  an  obstruction  on  the  street  at  a 


344  TURNING    AND    BACKING  CH.  XIV 

point  which  must  be  passed  just  before  reaching  a 
door,  the  best  way  is  to  drive  beyond  the  obstruc- 
tion, eoingf  close  to  it,  and  to  draw  in  to  the  kerb 
as  soon  as  possible,  gradually  bringing  the  horses 
parallel  to  the  kerb.  When  all  four  wheels  are 
parallel  to  the  kerb  the  coach  can  be  backed  straight 
into  its  place. 

If,  for  example,  the  obstacle  projects  6  feet  into 
the  street  and  is  10  feet  from  the  centre  of  the 
door,  the  hind  wheels  will  have  to  go  20  feet  be- 
yond the  obstacle  before  they  will  come  straight, 
and  the  coach  must  then  be  backed  14  feet  to 
bring  it  opposite  the  centre  of  the  door. 

In  backing  the  horses,  they  should  not  be  forcibly 
pulled  back,  but  they  should  be  gathered,  by  slight, 
varying  pressures,  not  exactly  jerks,  and  not  by  a 
dead  pull,  and  in  turning  the  leaders  through  the 
long  sweep  that  they  make  in  going  from  one  lock 
to  the  other  the  handling  should  be  the  same  ;  a 
dead  pull  would  bring  them  back  ;  they  should  be 
coaxed  round,  as  it  were. 

In  ordinary  coaching,  backing  round  in  a  narrow 
place  will  not  be  often  required,  but  if  the  coach- 
man finds  himself  in  a  road  the  far  end  of  which 
is  closed,  he  will  be,  or  should  be,  mortified  if  he 
is  not  able  to  turn  around  promptly  and  gracefully 
without  help  from  his  grooms,  or  uncertainty  as  to 
the  result ;  there  are  sometimes  long  stretches  of 
road  without  places  sufficiently  wide  to  turn,  in  the 
ordinary  way,  in  which  the  coachman  may  have  to 


CH.  XIV  DRIVING    APPARATUS  345 

drive  helplessly  on  when  he  knows  that  he  should 
have  turned  round  long  before  to  get  his  load  home 
in  time  for  dinner. 

At  race-courses,  country-clubs,  and  similar  places 
it  is  frequently  necessary  to  back  the  coach  into 
position  under  a  shed,  or  in  an  enclosure  of  small 
size,  and  although  that  operation  usually  falls  to  the 
lot  of  the  professional  coachman  or  groom,  it  is  to 
be  assumed  that  the  owner  will  not  expect  his  ser- 
vant to  do  anything  of  that  kind  which  he  himself 
cannot  do  as  well,  or  better,  and  he  may  be  assured 
that  no  small  amount  of  practice  and  judgement  is 
required  to  accomplish  the  feat  even  moderately 
well, — which  may  also  be  said  of  moving  a  carriage 
without  horses,  in  a  coach  house  ;  some  coachmen 
do  it  with  quickness  and  certainty,  and  others  only 
after  many  failures. 

Driving  Apparatus. — A  little  device  designed  by 
me  in  1892,  will  be  found  convenient  for  practising 
and  for  illustrating  methods  of  fingering. 

Two  pulleys,  each  with  two  rollers,  have  hooks 
by  which  they  can  be  attached  to  eyes  screwed  into 
any  convenient  wood-work,  or  to  clamps  fastened 
on  the  edge  of  a  heavy  table,  or  on  the  balustrade 
of  a  piazza. 

Over  these  pulleys,  straps  an  inch  in  width,  repre- 
senting the  reins,  are  passed.  Each  strap  termi- 
nates in  a  ring,  to  which  is  hooked  a  wire  stem, 
long  enough  to  carry  eight  weights  of  one  pound 


346 


DRIVING    APPARATUS 


CH.   XIV 


each.  In  Fig.  154,  two  pounds  are  represented  as 
on  each  rein. 

One  pound  barely  keeps  the  rein  tight. 

Two  pounds  on  each  rein  represent  the  pull  of  a 
very  light  team. 


Fig.    154. 

Three  pounds,  a  light  but  strong-going  team  that 
will  not  tire  a  man  in  good  condition. 

Four  pounds,  as  much  as  is  at  all  pleasant  for  a 
long  drive. 

Five  pounds,  too  much  to  be  pleasant,  even  when 
in  eood  condition. 


CH.  XIV  DRIVING    APPARATUS  347 

Above  five  pounds  represents  a  lugging  team, 
and  with  eight  pounds,  or,  in  all,  thirty-two  pounds, 
a  man's  arm  would  soon  give  out. 

Since  seventy  pounds  is  a  fair  tractive  force  for 
a  coach,  on  a  good  road,  it  often  happens  with  a 
pulling  team,  that  a  large  part  of  the  traction  is 
throuoh  the  reins  and  the  coachman's  arms  ;  in 
speaking  of  the  strength  required  to  hold  a  team, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  no  man  on  the  box  can 
exert  more  strength  than  the  amount  required  to 
draw  the  coach,  for  as  soon  as  that  is  reached,  the 
horses  draw  wholly  by  their  mouths  instead  of  by 
their  shoulders,  and  the  coachman's  arms  merely 
take  the  place  of  traces. 

In  using  the  apparatus,  the  conical  weight  should 
be  put  on  top,  to  prevent  the  weights  from  catching 
on  each  other  as  they  move  up  and  down. 

In  discussing  methods  of  fingering,  this  apparatus 
is  convenient,  since  all  the  movements  of  the  hand 
and  fingers  can  be  made,  exactly  as  they  are  made 
on  the  coach-box.  Any  new  fingering  can  be,  by 
practice,  easily  acquired,  and  when  one  has  not 
been  driving  for  a  time,  the  fingers  and  arm  can  be 
brought  into  condition  by  a  little  daily  work  with 
heavy  weights. 

The  space  between  the  lower  roller  and  the 
smooth  round  pin  which  connects  the  sides  of  the 
frame,  permits  the  addition  of  a  third  rein  in  case 
practice  in  six-horse  driving  is  desired. 

Several    interesting    little    matters,    such    as    the 


348  DRIVING    APPARATUS  CH.   XIV 

tendency  of  certain  reins  to  slip  more  than  others, 
will  be  discovered  by  the  expert  in  practising  with 
the  weights. 

This  apparatus  can  be  simplified  by  substituting 
for    the    pulleys    and    weights,    india-rubber    bands, 
such   as    are    sold   by    stationers    for   packages    of 
papers.     Such  a  band,  five-eighths  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  of  a    thickness    of   fourteen    to    the    inch,   will, 
when     somewhat    stretched,    give   a    resistance    of 
about  a  pound,  and  any  number  may  be  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  rein.     This  makes  the  apparatus 
portable,    and   a   hundred    or   more    pulls    upon    it 
every  morning,  when    one   has    no    opportunity    of 
driving,  will  keep  the  fingers  and  the  arm  in  good 
condition. 


ch.  xv  349 


CHAPTER    XV 
GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS    ON    DRIVING 

Although  a  boy  may  acquire  confidence  and 
learn  a  great  deal  about  horses  and  driving,  by 
'  knocking  about'  and  finding  out  things  for  himself, 
the  beginner  should  not  fail  to  take  lessons  from  the 
most  competent  teacher  that  he  can  find.  That  man 
who  thinks  he  can  deduce  from  his  '  inner  conscious- 
ness' all  the  knowledge  which  is  the  result  of  the 
long  experience,  and  the  accumulated  ingenuity,  of 
generations  of  performers,  is  assuming  a  great  deal. 
Every  art  is  perfected  by  the  successive  inventions 
of  its  masters,  which,  observed  by  or  communicated 
to  one  another,  are  slowly  formed  into  a  system 
much  more  perfect  than  it  is  possible  for  any  one 
man  to  create  for  himself.  A  self-taught  man  inevi- 
tably contracts  bad  habits  which  he  will  find  very 
difficult  to  abandon,  even  when  he  knows  the  better 
way,  and  the  longer  he  drives  without  competent 
criticism  the  more  fixed  these  bad  habits  become. 

There  is  no  teacher  so  good  as  a  professional 
teacher  ;  he  is  paid  to  do  what  even  a  very  skilful 
friend  is  not  willing:  to  do  : — find  fault,  in  addition  to 
giving  instruction.  A  pupil  should  make  up  his 
mind  to  do  precisely  what  his  instructor  tells  him, 
as  long  as  he  is  driving  with  him  ;  to  drive  with  a 


350  GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS    ON    DRIVING       CH.   XV 

teacher  and  to  be  constantly  objecting  to  or  criti- 
cising his  methods  is  a  mistake,  although  not  an 
uncommon  one. 

In  addition  to  taking  all  the  regular  lessons  that 
he  can  get,  the  beginner  will  find  it  greatly  to  his 
advantage  to  observe  carefully  any  skilful  performer 
alongside  of  whom  it  may  be  his  good  fortune  to  be 
placed  ;  even  when  a  man  is  well  advanced,  he  will 
often  learn  much  by  watching  another  who  does  not 
drive  as  well  as  himself,  if  only  by  noticing  mistakes. 

The  time  required  to  become  a  fairly  good  four- 
in-hand  coachman  will  depend  upon  a  variety  of 
circumstances.  If  the  beginner  is  young  and  strong, 
and  has  already  had  a  good  deal  of  experience  with 
horses,  two  or  three  months  of  conscientious  work 
under  a  good  teacher  will  put  him  well  on  the  way, 
but  only  years  of  practice  will  make  him  a  master 
of  the  art. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  two  parts 
in  all  driving  ;  one  is  general,  relating  to  everything 
connected  with  the  management  of  horses  ;  it  is  the 
same,  whether  one,  two,  or  four  are  in  hand,  and 
may  be  likened  to  general  strategy ;  the  second 
resembles  tactics,  and  must  be  separately  learned 
in  every  branch  of  the  service.  A  movement  well 
planned  and  well  executed  is  likely  to  be  successful  ; 
one  well  planned  but  badly  executed  is  doubtful  ; 
one  badly  planned  but  well  executed  may  come  out 
right,  but  one  badly  planned  and  badly  executed  is 
sure  to  be  a  failure. 


CH.  XV       GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    DRIVING  35  I 

No  experience  in  general  practice  is  thrown  away  ; 
a  mere  knowledge  of  how  to  finger  four  reins  in  the 
most  accurate  manner  does  not  make  a  coachman  ; 
and  a  man  who  has  not  been  brought  up  among 
horses,  and  acquired  his  general  knowledge  through 
rough-and-tumble  methods  at  the  time  in  youth  when 
discretion  does  not  outweigh  rashness,  will  find  it 
difficult,  even  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances, to  attain  the  highest  proficiency,  since  he 
will  be  likely  to  lack  that  confidence  and  coolness 
which  are  of  the  first  importance  to  a  good  coachman. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  old  professional 
coachmen  of  England  were  so  admirable  :  put  to 
their  work  when  boys,  sometimes  under  pretty  rough 
masters,  they  early  became  familiar  with  all  the  de- 
tails of  a  complicated  art,  and  acquired  an  instinc- 
tive method  of  meeting  every  difficulty.  Instinctive 
is  the  proper  expression,  because  there  is  frequently 
no  time  to  think, — the  action  must  be  quicker  almost 
than  the  thought,  like  the  closing  of  an  eye  against 
a  missile,  independent  of  any  conscious  intention. 

One  reason  for  beginning  in  the  right  way  is,  that 
having  adopted  a  method,  it  is  most  important  to 
adhere  to  it,  and  obviously  no  one  should  wish  to 
adhere  for  ever  to  a  bad  method.  Unless  a  coach- 
man has  a  way  which  has  almost  become  a  second 
nature  of  doing  each  thing,  he  is  likely  to  be  con- 
fused in  an  emergency,  by  trying  to  do  two  different 
things  at  once,  and  failing  in  both. 

It    will    be    found    that    competent    professional 


352  GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    DRIVING       CH.   XV 

teachers  usually  have  an  absolutely  fixed  way  of 
doing  each  thing,  and  are  intolerant  of  any  deviation 
from  it,  which  is  only  natural,  since  they  cannot 
teach  with  authority  anything  in  which  they  have 
not  an  implicit  belief. 

One  often  hears  coachmen,  those  especially  who 
are  devoted  to  public-coach  work,  speak  sneeringly  of 
what  they  consider  '  fancy'  four-in-hand  driving,  such 
as  backing  round  in  narrow  places  and  turning 
difficult  corners,  and  insist  that  to  go  ahead  on  a 
reasonably  plain  road  is  the  only  duty  of  a  coach  ; 
and  when  asked  what  they  would  do  in  a  difficult 
situation  they  will  answer  that  a  coach  has  no 
business  to  be  in  that  kind  of  a  place.  The  accom- 
plished coachman,  however,  will  hardly  be  willing 
thus  to  restrict  himself,  and  will  prefer  to  be  able 
to  execute  all  movements  which  are  mechanically 
possible. 

As  the  temperaments  of  men  differ,  so  will  their 
methods  of  driving  :  one  man,  with  great  skill  and 
a  somewhat  rash  disposition,  will  not  hesitate  to 
take  great  chances,  confident  that  he  can  get  out 
of  a  'scrape,'  which  he  will  probably  do  in  a  bril- 
liant manner  ;  another,  with  good  judgement  and 
foresight,  will  attain  his  end  without  o-ettincr  into  the 
difficulty  at  all.  In  the  long  run,  the  latter  method 
is  preferable,  as  it  is  usually  better  to  keep  out  of  a 
'  fix'  than  to  get  out. 

The  coachman  should  train  himself  to  be  a  good 
judge   of  pace :   some    men    never   know    how   fast 


CH.  XV  JUDGEMENT    OF    PACE  353 

they  are  going,  and  either  lose  time,  or  overwork 
their  cattle.  Four  horses  to  a  coach,  on  a  good 
road,  get  over  the  ground  faster  than  they  seem  to 
do,  to  an  unpractised  observer.  In  driving  a  public- 
coach  over  an  unknown  road,  as  is  sometimes  the 
good  fortune  of  a  coachman,  all  that  he  can  know 
ol  a  stage  is,  that  it  is  so  many  miles,  to  be  done  in 
so  many  minutes,  with  a  hint  that  there  is  such  a 
part  up-hill  and  such  a  part  down-hill  ;  and,  unless 
he  is  able  to  judge  accurately  of  the  rate  at  which 
he  is  going,  he  must  do  the  stage  badly,  arriving  at 
the  end  of  it  either  too  early  or  too  late.  Various 
suggestions  are  made  as  to  the  means  of  estimating- 
the  speed,  such  as  looking  at  the  wheels,  &c.  ;  but 
the  only  true  way  is  to  acquire,  by  careful  observa- 
tion, a  knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  horses  of 
different  qualities  and  sizes  go  at  a  certain  pace, 
whereupon  the  ability  to  judge  will  come  insensibly. 
Perfect  judgement  in  this  respect  is  not  given  to  all 
men,  and  in  race-riding  it  is  justly  considered  one  of 
the  most  important  and  one  of  the  rarest  qualities 
that  jockeys  possess. 

Of  importance,  also,  in  a  minor  way,  is  the  ability 
to  decide  upon  how  much  time  will  be  required  to 
cover  a  certain  amount  of  road  in  attempting  to 
overtake  and  pass  a  vehicle,  so  as  not  to  be  forced, 
after  commencing  such  a  movement,  to  pull  up, 
when  half  through  it,  in  order  to  permit  something 
coming  in  the  opposite  direction  to  go  by. 

Galloping  the  horses  to  a  coach  may  be  resorted 

23 


354  GALLOPING  CH.  XV 

to,  either  for  the  pleasure  of  the  motion,  or  because 
with  a  team,  some  of  the  horses  of  which  cannot 
trot  fast  enough,  it  is  better  to  gallop  them  all  than 
to  permit  only  one  or  two  to  do  so  ;  horses  which 
will  not  trot  evenly  can  often  be  made  to  share  the 
work  equally  by  galloping  them  all  together. 

A  horse  cannot  trot  at  the  top  of  his  speed  without 
soon  becoming  distressed,  whereas  he  can  gallop 
the  same  number  of  miles  an  hour,  still  going  within 
his  speed,  since  the  majority  of  horses  can  gallop 
faster  than  they  can  trot.  A  gallop  rests  him,  and 
a  tired  horse  will  break  into  a  gallop  much  slower 
than  his  ordinary  trot. 

In  galloping,  except  down-hill,  the  leaders'  traces 
should  be  kept  tight,  because  their  pulling  on  the 
point  of  the  pole  will  keep  the  coach  straighter 
than  if  the  wheel  horses  alone  pull  by  the  splinter- 
bar,  when  the  coach  is  apt  to  swerve  about  and  get 
to  swinging  from  one  side  of  the  road  to  the  other. 
What  is  called  rolling,  in  a  coach,  commences  in 
this  way,  the  lateral  motion  soon  inducing  a  rocking 
motion  of  the  body,  which  may  cause  an  overturn 
if  it  becomes  too  great.  Care  must  be  taken, 
therefore,  that  all  the  horses,  and  especially  the 
wheelers,  gallop  evenly  ;  as  a  rule,  while  the  horses 
must  be  sufficiently  steadied  by  the  reins,  they 
should  not  be  held  too  tightly,  especially  if,  as  in 
the  case  of  galloping  to  make  time,  they  are  doing 
nearly  their  best.  In  galloping,  great  caution  must 
be  exercised  that  the  team  does  not  get  ahead  of 


CH.  XV  GALLOPING  355 

the  coachman  ;  for  no  man  can  stop  four  good 
horses  on  a  level  road,  if  once  they  get  beyond 
his  control.  At  the  slightest  indication  that  this  is 
about  to  happen,  they  must  be  pulled  down  to  a 
slower  pace,  without  a  moment's  hesitation.  What 
these  indications  are  it  is  difficult  to  describe,  but 
the  experienced  coachman  recognises  them  by  a 
kind  of  instinct ;  to  the  inexperienced  man  they 
frequently  come  too  late. 

Should  the  horses  get  away,  on  a  road  which  has 
no  traffic  on  it,  and  which  can  be  seen  for  some 
distance  ahead,  there  is  one  remedy  which  sounds 
somewhat  desperate,  but  which,  in  good  hands,  is 
the  proper  one  :  this  is,  not  only  to  let  them  go,  but 
to  urge  them  on,  all  the  energy  of  the  driver  being 
concentrated  on  guiding  them  ;  pulling  on  them  will 
only  exhaust  him,  and  with  no  result.  Horses,  un- 
less they  are  frightened,  and  therefore  crazy,  will 
not  run  far  at  the  top  of  their  speed,  pulling  a  coach 
with  the  brake  on,  but  they  must  be  made  to  go  at 
the  very  top  of  their  speed,  or  they  will  not  tire 
soon  enough.  If  the  coachman,  when  he  finds  that 
they  are  beginning  to  slacken  their  speed,  has  the 
good  fortune  still  to  have  a  piece  of  unobstructed 
road  ahead  of  him,  he  may  give  them  a  little  of  the 
whip  all  round,  when  the  pace  will  soon  take  out 
of  them  all  desire  to  run  further,  and  they  can  be 
stopped  with  the  impression  on  their  minds,  that 
they  have  been  made  to  do  something  disagreeable 
and  fatiguing,  which  was  not  by  any  means  fun. 


356  GALLOPING  CH.   XV 

If  nothing  is  broken,  nor  has  hurt  or  fricditened 
the  horses,  a  runaway  thus  managed  will  not  injure 
them  for  future  driving  ;  but  it  will  be  prudent  to 
take  them  carefully  over  that  particular  bit  of  road 
on  any  future  occasion  ;  they  may  think  that  they 
are  expected  to  repeat  the  performance,  and  a  horse 
has  a  good  memory. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  chance  of 
success  in  the  application  of  this  method  depends 
entirely  upon  the  horses  being  driven  all  the  time 
that  they  are  running  ;  if  they  are  allowed  to  get 
out  of  hand  and  to  gallop  along,  each  one  on  his  own 
account,  a  leader  or  a  wheeler  may  come  back  on 
his  bar,  and  get  to  kicking,  with  every  probability  of 
a  general  smash  up. 

In  all  this,  a  clear  road  has  been  assumed  ;  on  a 
crowded  road  with  sharp  turns,  a  regular  runaway 
will  usually  result  seriously,  and  it  is,  therefore,  far 
better  to  avoid  it  than  to  make  the  best  of  it.  This 
is   one   reason   for  the   excellent  old   rule  of  <joino- 

«z>  o 

slowly  off  the  top  of  a  hill  ;  since  pulling  horses  are 
frequently  inclined  to  start  off  suddenly  when  they 
are  relieved  of  the  weight  of  the  coach,  and  then  to 
get  beyond  control. 

Horses  will  sometimes  run  away  at  a  trot  ;  that  is, 
without  breaking  into  a  gallop,  they  will  get  beyond 
the  control  of  the  coachman  long  before  it  may 
appear  to  any  but  an  expert  observer  that  they  are 
so. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  galloping  is  not  always 


CH.  XV  USE    OF    THE    BRAKE  357 

faster  than  trotting,  although  it  usually  looks  so  ; 
it  is  quite  easy  to  gallop  a  team  at  a  slower  pace 
than  their  best  trot. 

Coachmen  differ  much  in  the  use  that  they  make 
of  the  brake,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  lay  down 
positive  rules  about  it.  The  brake  should  not  be 
used  for  stopping,  except  to  avoid  an  accident  under 
some  unexpected  circumstances  ;  on  a  steep  descent 
it  should  be  put  on  hard  enough  to  take  most  of  the 
strain  off  of  the  pole-chains,  and  on  a  long  hill  which 
is  not  steep  (say  about  three  per  cent.,  that  is,  one 
foot  rise  in  thirty-three)  it  should  be  put  on  lightly, 
so  that  the  horses  can  go  along  at  a  good  speed 
without  having  to  pull  or  to  hold  back  ;  toward  the 
foot  of  an  incline  the  end  of  which  turns,  or  cannot 
be  distinctly  seen,  it  is  well  to  have  the  brake  a  little 
on,  both  to  moderate  the  pace  and  to  be  prepared 
for  an  emergency. 

It  is  a  bad  plan  to  use  the  brake  so  much  that  the 
horses  get  out  of  the  habit  of  holding-  back,  since 
upon  occasion  it  is  of  great  importance  that  they 
should  be  able  and  willing  to  do  so.  Many  pro- 
fessional four-horse  coachmen  on  the  Continent  use 
the  brake  to  keep  the  traces  tight  in  going  down  a 
moderate  hill,  so  that  the  horses  shall  be  always  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  hand  ;  but  it  is  a  bad 
plan,  both  because  it  keeps  them  at  work  all  the 
time,  and  because  it  does  not  permit  the  collars  to 
lift  from  the  necks, — a  great  relief  to  the  wheelers 
in  warm  weather. 


358  GROOMS    GETTING    DOWN  CH.  XV 

The  brake  may  be  used,  however,  to  advantage 
in  descending  a  slippery  slope,  even  if  the  grade  is 
but  slight ;  a  horse,  when  holding  back,  is  apt  to 
pull  away  from  the  pole,  and  in  that  position  is 
likely  to  slip  sideways  on  a  smooth  pavement. 

The  person  sitting  on  the  off  side  roof-seat  of  a 
coach  should  never  touch  the  brake  unless  he  is 
asked  to  do  so  by  the  coachman. 

In  driving  in  a  crowd,  the  horses  should  always  be 
kept  'in  their  bridles,'  or,  in  more  exact  language, 
'  up  to  their  bits.'  If  this  is  not  done,  they  will  not 
respond  promptly  to  an  indication  of  the  reins.  In 
fact,  horses  well  driven  should  always  go  up  to  their 
bits,  quite  a  different  thing  from  pulling  or  taking 
hold  too  much.  In  crowded  streets,  it  is  quite  neces- 
sary to  take  care  that  the  near  leader  be  not  struck 
by  the  wheel  of  a  carriage  which,  overtaking  the 
coach  and  passing  on  the  left-hand  side,  turns  in 
too  soon  in  front  of  the  leaders  ;  unless  the  horses 
are  well  in  hand  they  cannot  be  pulled  off  to  the 
right  quickly  enough  to  avoid  the  blow. 

The  grooms  should  not  get  down  and  go  to  the 
horses'  heads  whenever  there  is  a  block  or  a  slight 
stop.  It  indicates  an  habitual  nervousness  on  the 
part  of  the  coachman  or  a  want  of  confidence  in  his 
skill,  on  the  part  of  his  men.  There  are  occasions 
when  it  is  necessary,  and  then  active  men  who  can 
get  to  the  spot  quickly,  are  invaluable,  but  the  fin- 
ished coachman  rarely  requires  such  aid.  In  driving 
away  from  a  difficult  place,  the  men  may  linger  a 


CH.  XV       GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS    ON    DRIVING  359 

little  near  the  horses'  heads  until  the  horses  are 
fairly  started,  but  out  of  the  way  and  without  inter- 
fering, merely  so  as  to  be  at  hand,  should  their  as- 
sistance be  absolutely  required  ;  for  instance,  in 
leaving  a  race-course,  where  there  is  a  crowd,  and 
perhaps  a  narrow  passage  or  gate,  and  when  the 
horses  are  excited,  by  waiting,  and  by  the  people 
around  them  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  when  three  persons 
are  required  to  manage  four  horses,  something  is 
wrong. 

A  helpless-looking  man  seated  on  the  driving 
cushion,  with  his  whip  in  the  socket,  his  reins  all  of 
different  degrees  of  tightness,  with  a  man  at  each 
leader's  head,  endeavouring  to  make  way  through 
an  admiring  crowd,  is  not  an  edifying  spectacle. 

A  little  quick  thought  will  sometimes  get  a  coach- 
man  out   of   a   difficulty. 

On  a  certain  occasion,  as  ..-' T^ 

f 

I  was  driving  a  coach  to  { 
a  private  race-meeting,  I 
noticed,  in  approaching 
the  course,  that  the  en- 
trance to  it  had  been 
made  by  pulling  down 
two  panels  of  fence  at  a 
corner,  making  a  sharp 
turn  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  155,  the  full  black  line 
being-  the  track  which  the  vehicles  were  expected 
to  follow.  A  friend  asserting  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  drive  in  there  with  a  coach,  I  offered  to 


^.. 


Fig.  155. 


300  BITTING    AND    HANDLING    HORSES  CH.   XV 

bet  that  I  could  do  it  at  a  sharp  trot,  and,  following 
the  line  indicated  by  the  dots,  did  so  easily.  Since 
the  turn  was  made  in  a  ten-acre  field,  there  was  no 
particular  difficulty  in  the  feat. 

Another  time,  when  driving  a  pair  of  strange 
horses  to  a  phaeton  and  approaching,  on  an  upward 
slope,  a  narrow  gate  into  a  park,  a  carriage  came 
suddenly  out  of  the  gate  and  made  it  necessary  to 
stop.  Upon  attempting  to  start  up  the  slope,  the 
horses  baulked,  and  refused  to  go  on  ;  the  groom, 
jumping  down,  ran  to  their  heads  with  the  intention 
of  leading  them,  an  operation  which,  besides  being 
awkward  even  if  successful,  would  very  likely  have 
led  to  an  altercation  between  the  horses  and  the 
groom.  The  latter  being  ordered  to  stand  aside, 
the  horses  were  merely  turned  round  down  the  hill 
and  again  turned  at  a  distance  sufficient  to  give 
them  some  headway,  and  then  went  through  the 
gate  at  a  trot  without  the  slightest  hesitation. 

Bitting  and  Handling  Horses  for  Driving. — 
The  bits  described  and  figured  in  the  Chapter  on 
Harness,  are  those  most  in  use  for  driving,  although 
there  are  many  other  patterns  which,  for  special 
reasons,  are  favourites. 

For  saddle  purposes,  the  bits  are  :  first,  the  plain 
snaffle,  which  is  a  jointed  bit  (like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  91),  but  with  cheek-pieces,  or  horns,  added  to 
the  rings,  so  that  they  cannot  be  pulled  through  the 
horse's  mouth.     This  is  the  mildest  form  of  bit,  and 


CH.   XV 


BITTING 


S6l 


is  used  on  race  horses  and  sometimes  on  hunters. 
With  horns,  and  with  loose  rings  to  be  attached  to 
the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bridle  (Fig.  92),  it  is  an  ad- 
mirable hunting1  bit.  Without  horns  and  as  shown 
in  Fig.  91,  it  is  used,  in  a  riding-bridle,  as  the  bridoon, 
or  accompanying  bit  to  the  curb,  but  it  then  has  a 
thinner  mouth-piece.  Secondly,  the  curb-bit,  which 
for  saddle  purposes  has  lighter  branches  than  the 
driving-bit,  with  one  ring  at  the  top,  to  fasten  it  to 
the  bridle,  and  one  ring  at 
the  bottom,  for  the  rein. 
The  mouth-piece  usually 
has  the  form  shown  in 
Fig.  88,  B,  with  a  port  or 
liberty  of  the  tongue.  The 
best  form  of  this  bit  is 
shown     in     Fig.     156,    in  FlG    is6 

which  the  canons  of  the 

mouth-piece  are  thick  and  the  port  somewhat  thin- 
ner, so  as  to  give  room  for  the  tongue  while  not 
bringing  the  port  too  near  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 

In  Fig.  156,  the  port  is  inclined  forward,  from  the 
line  of  the  branches,  so  that  when  they  take  their 
proper  position  under  the  pull  of  the  reins,  the 
tongue  will  have  really  the  most  liberty,  which  will 
not  be  the  case  if  the  port  is  in  the  same  plane  with 
the  branches.* 


*  I  am  tempted  to  add  an  extract  from  a  letter  written  to  me  in 
June   1872  by  Benjamin  Latchford,  the  well-known  bit  and  spur 


362  BITTING  CH.  XV 

Major  Dwyer,  in  his  valuable  book,  Seats  and 
Saddles,  Bits  and  Bitting,  gives  what  he  considers 
the  proper  dimensions  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
bit,  namely:  i3^  inches  from  the  under  side  of  the 
mouth-piece  to  the  centre  of  the  upper  ring-,  show- 
ing clearly,  that  for  the  average  horse  this  brings 
the  curb-chain  in  its  proper  place  on  the  under 
side  of  the  jaw  ;  and  3^  inches  for  the  length  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  branch  from  the  under  side  of 


maker  of  London.  '  Dear  Sir, — Yours  of  24th  May  last  is  now  be- 
'  fore  me  ;  I  have  noted  its  contents.  Mine  is  a  lifelong  experience 
'  in,  and  of,  the  Bitting  of  Horses  :  take  that  for  what  it  is  worth, 
'  and,  believe  me,  you  are  the  first  and  only  one  (as  far  as  I  can 
'  recollect)  that  can  see  as  I  do  the  true  position  of  the  horse's  head 
'  with  the  bits,  and  the  bits  with  the  horses'  heads.  If  you  simply 
'  question  any  breeder,  trainer,  breaker,  hunting  or  driving  gentle- 
'  man,  park  or  road  rider,  or  jockey  (as  I  have  done  hundreds  of 
'them),  you  will  find  the  idea  is  that  the  horse's  head  is  naturally 
'  horizontal,  and  the  cheeks  and  the  bits  perpendicular,  and  that  the 
'  part  in  a  line  with  the  cheeks  is  the  position  to  give  ease  and  freedom 
'  to  the  tongue  ;  however  absurd,  I  have  always  found  it  the  prevailing 
'  idea  among  them.  Your  drawings  exactly  accord  with  my  proper 
'  construction  of  a  bit  with  a  port  mouth  of  any  sort, — i.e.,  the  port  to 
'  be  one-eighth  of  a  circle  (or  45  degrees)  forward  from  the  perpen- 
'  dicular  cheek  of  the  bit  :  as  you  know,  the  horse's  head  is  nearly 
'  perpendicular  ;  the  bit  fastened  to  the  leather  hangs  perpendicular  ; 
'  consequently  the  mouth-piece  with  a  port  of  any  kind,  lies  a  crooked 
'  bar  on  the  tongue,  unless  set  forward  one-eighth  of  a  circle  as  your 
'  drawing  is,  in  which  case  the  tongue  has  the  benefit  of  it  when  not 
'in  use,  and  the  greater  benefit  when  in  use.'  The  letter  to  which 
this  was  an  answer,  accompanied  an  order  for  a  bit,  and  I  was  much 
pleased  to  find  my  ideas  on  the  subject  endorsed  by  so  good  an  au- 
thority. 


CH.   XV 


BITTING 


JUJ 


the  mouth-piece  to  the  ring  to  which  the  rein  is 
attached.  The  measures  are  not  from  the  centre 
of  the  mouth-piece,  but  from  its  under  side,  because 
that  is  the  point  about  which  the  bit  rotates  on  the 
bars  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

Major  Dwyer's  opinions  are  supported  by  such 
good  arguments  and  illustrations,  unfortunately  too 
long  to  be  quoted  here,  that  they  may  be  safely 
adopted. 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  give  dimensions  in  inches  for 
the  width  of  the  bit  as  for  the  length,  since  the 
widths  of  horses'  noses  differ  greatly,  but  a  good  fit 
in  width  is  even  more  important  than  the  proper 
length  of  the  branches  ;  no  horse  will  work  really 
well  with  a  bit  which  is  not  of  the  proper  width  ; 
a  fact  so  rarely  recognised  that  out  of  any  twenty 
harness-horses  taken  at  random,  ten  will  be  found 
to  have  bits  too  narrow  or  too  wide,  usually  too 
wide.  The  bit  must  be  of  such  a  width  that  when 
the  curb-chain  is  hooked  properly  and  the  rein 
pulled  back,  the  outside  of  the 
lower  lip  will  fill  the  space 
between  the  branches  without 
being  pinched  by  them.  If  it  is 
much  wider  than  this,  it  may 
be  pulled  sideways  in  the 
mouth,  and  instead  of  the  can- 
ons of  the  mouth-piece  (C  C, 
Fig.  157)  resting  fairly  on  the  bars  of  the  mouth, 
which  are  narrow,  the  point  of  junction  of  the  canon 


Fig.  157. 


364  BITTING  CH.  XV 

and  port,  or,  still  worse,  even  the  middle  of  the 
port,  P,  will  bear  upon  one  of  the  bars.  As  a  rule, 
the  width  of  the  port  should  be  about  one-third  the 
whole  width  of  the  bit;  bits  will  vary  from  four  to 
five  inches,  the  latter  width  being  rare. 

The  width  of  a  bit  may  be  reduced  by  using  a 
leather  washer  on  each  side  of  the  lips,  but  this 
still  leaves  the  port  too  wide  for  the  changed  width 
of  the  bit. 

The  washer  prevents  the  horse  from  taking  hold 
of  the  branch  with  his  lip,  but  if  he  has  this  trick, 
it  is  better  to  put  on  an  elbow  bit  (C,  Fig.  88),  or  a 
lip  strap.  Of  course,  with  a  straight  mouth-piece 
without  a  port,  the  use  of  the  washer  is  quite  satis- 
factory. A  straight  mouth-piece  is  rarely  used  on 
a  riding  bit,  and  leather  washers  never. 

The  high  port,  referred  to  on  page  203,  when 
combined  with  a  tight  nose-band,  which  prevents 
the  horse  from  opening  his  mouth,  is  very  effective 
by  pressing  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth  ;  but  it 
must  be  used  with  a  licrht  hand,  or  with  the  rein 
in  the  cheek. 

The  Pelham  bit  has  a  mouth- piece  without  any 
port,  but  with  a  joint  in  the  middle  (Fig.  158). 

In  addition  to  the  ring's  for  the  reins,  which  are 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  there  are  rings  at  the 
ends  of  the  mouth-piece,  and  when  the  reins  are 
buckled  to  these  rings,  the  bit  is  practically  a  snafiie. 

This  is  a  favourite  riding-bit  and  is  used  with  two 
pairs  of  reins,  so  that  it  acts  as  a  curb  or  a  snaffle,  at 


CH.   XV 


BITTING 


;65 


Fig.   158. 


the  pleasure  of  the  rider.  Battersby  (p.  69)  recom- 
mends it,  with  much  justice,  as  a  bit  for  cavalry, 
supplying,  as  it  does,  a  snaffle-bit  more  convenient 
than  the  separate  watering-bridle  now 
in  use.  There  is  an  advantage  to  a 
cavalry  man  in  having  two  reins,  in 
case  one  should  be  cut. 

The  ordinary  driving-bit  is,  in  one 
sense,  a  Pelham,  since,  although  it  has 
no  joint,  there  is  a  ring  at  the  mouth- 
piece for  the  rein,  but,  instead  of  having 
a  ring  only  at  the  end  of  the  branch, 
there  are  two  or  three  eyes  in  the 
branch,  to  either  one  of  which  the  rein  can  be 
buckled  (Fig.  89). 

A,  in  Fig.  88,  is  usually  called  the  Liverpool  bit, 
and  sometimes,  by  French  writers,  the  German  bit  ; 
B  and  C  are  only  modifications  of  it.  D,  the  Bux- 
ton bit,  is  on  the  same  principle,  but  has  its  branch 
curved,  to  prevent  the  horse  from  taking  hold  of  it 
with  his  lip. 

The  Mexican,  or  South  American,  bit,  which  is  the 
same  as  the  Turkish  bit,  has  no  curb-chain,  but  in 
its  place  a  ring,  which  is  attached  to  the  top  of  a 
high  port  and  goes  under  the  chin  of  the  horse  ; 
it  is  very  severe. 

These  classes  comprise  the  bits  that  are  in  com- 
mon use,  but  the  number  of  forms  and  names  is 
very  great ;  more  than  ninety  are  figured  in  Latch- 
ford's  Loriner. 


366  HANDLING  CH.   XV 

Handling. — While  driving-horses  in  England  are 
usually  thoroughly  handled  by  the  dealer  before 
being  offered  for  sale,  in  America  they  are  '  broken 
to  harness,'  as  it  is  called,  and  only  so  far  prepared 
that  they  can  be  driven  with  safety,  but  with  little  or 
no  finish,  and,  for  a  man  who  likes  to  have  his  horses 
light  and  handy,  are  rarely  very  agreeable  to  drive. 

On  a  private  coach  the  pleasure  of  driving  de- 
pends greatly  upon  the  manners  of  the  horses,  and, 
unless  the  owner  employs  some  professional  trainer 
who  can  handle  and  prepare  them  for  him,  he  ought 
to  be  able  to  put  some  work  upon  them  himself  to 
make  them  anything  like  perfect. 

A  London  dealer  has  at  least  one  man  in  his 
employ,  to  show  and  to  handle  horses,  who  is  a 
master  of  his  business,  and  who,  without  any  sys- 
tem that  he  could  describe,  will  in  a  comparatively 
few  lessons  make  a  pleasant  horse  out  of  a  green 
one.  The  man  himself  has  had  trood  training  and 
large  experience,  and  has  patience,  courage,  and 
hands.  Usually  he  puts  a  new  horse,  assuming  it 
to  be  '  broken  to  harness'  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  phrase,  to  a  dealer's  break  (Fig.  58),  alongside 
of  an  old  horse,  '  the  schoolmaster,'  and  soon  de- 
cides upon  the  bit  and  the  details  of  harnessing 
which  suit  the  horse  best.  After  a  few  lessons  he 
puts  him  alongside  of  the  horse  with  which  it  is 
desired  to  mate  him,  and,  driving  them  together 
with  great  judgement  and  skill,  makes  them  fit  to 
show  and  to  sell. 


CH.  XV  HANDLING  367 

An  amateur,  if  he  has  equal  knowledge  and 
skill,  can  do  the  same,  and  on  our  side  of  the  water 
he  usually  must  do  it  for  himself. 

The  breeder  of  a  horse  should  beoqn  to  accus- 
torn  the  colt  at  an  early  age  to  be  haltered,  to  bear 
a  surcingle  strapped  on,  to  be  led  about,  and  to 
have  his  feet  held  up  and  struck  as  if  he  were  being 
shod.  All  these  things  can  be  easily  done  with  a 
little  weak  foal,  which  will  not  resent  them,  if  rea- 
sonable care  and  gentleness  are  used,  and  thus  the 
way  is  well  prepared  for  the  after  operations  of 
breaking, — a  word  expressive  of  the  difficulty  of 
doing  anything  with  a  horse  which  has  been  allowed 
to  run  wild  until  he  is  so  strong  that  only  brute 
force  can  subdue  him  to  obedience, — but  which 
should  be  replaced  by  the  word  framing,  where 
the  horse  has  been  properly  handled  as  a  colt. 

Assuming  that  a  coaching  owner  receives  a  horse 
as  a  fairly  well  broken  animal,  he  will  find  it  ad- 
vantageous to  handle  him  in  the  manner  about  to 
be  described. 

It  is  frequently  supposed  that  the  work  done  to 
prepare  a  saddle-horse,  is  wasted  if  applied  to  a 
drivinor-horse,  and  no  doubt  much  of  it  would  be  ; 
but  a  certain  portion  of  it  is  most  useful.  The 
elaborate  systems  of  training  saddle-horses,  mainly 
for  military  purposes,  since  the  time  of  Grison  and 
Fieschi,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  have 
been  gradually  superseded  by  simpler  methods,  or, 
at  least,  by  methods  requiring  fewer  appliances  and 


368  baucher's  method  ch.  xv 

assistants,  and  the  Frenchman  Baucher  brought 
out,  in  1842,  a  method,  not,  of  course,  entirely  new, 
which  is,  more  or  less,  the  basis  of  all  the  best 
practice  of  the  present  time. 

Baucher's  method  consists  in  placing  the  horse, 
by  the  use  of  the  bit  and  the  whip,  or  the  spur,  in 
such  attitudes  as  to  give  the  rider  control  of  the 
horse's  movements,  and  to  make  him  light,  the 
trainer  working  first  on  foot  and  afterward  mounted. 

The  attitude  assumed  by  a  horse  when  he  resists, 
or  puts  himself  in  a  position  of  defence,  is  with  his 
legs  extended  somewhat  backward  and  his  neck 
and  head  advanced.  In  order  to  prevent  him  from 
exercising  this  resistance,  his  hind  legs  should  be 
brought  under  his  body,  his  neck  raised  and  bent, 
and  his  nose  brought  in.  In  this  position  he  is 
said  to  be  gathered,  and  is  ready  to  respond  to  the 
indications  of  his  rider,  or  driver,  and  cannot  exert 
that  resistance  which  makes  a  horse  heavy  on  the 
hand. 

This  correct  position  is  of  more  importance  in  a 
saddle-horse  than  in  a  driving-horse,  but  as  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  body  affects  that  of  the  neck,  a  driving- 
horse  well  gathered  will  respond  more  readily  to 
the  hand  and  to  the  bit,  when  being  driven,  than 
an  untrained  horse,  is  more  agreeable  to  drive,  and 
in  every  way  more  handy. 

This  handling  is  the  basis  of  what  is  known  as 
'  High-School'  riding,  which  has  always  been  popu- 
lar   on    the    Continent,   but    never    so    much  so    in 


9 

ch.  xv  baucher's  method  369 

England  or  America,  and  it  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed, as  modified  by  successors  of  Baucher, 
notably  by  Fillis,  as  follows  : — 

The  horse,  in  an  ordinary  riding-bridle,  curb, 
and  snaffle,  is  brought  to  the  place  of  the  lessons, 
preferably  a  riding-house  where  there  is  nothing  to 
distract  his  attention.  The  system,  when  exactly 
followed,  requires  that  preceding  this  he  should 
have  been  exercised  with  a  cavesson  and  the  lunge, 
and  we  will  assume  that  this,  or  something  equiva- 
lent, has  already  been  done  by  the  breeder  of  the 
horse. 

The    trainer,    standing-   on   the   near   side   of    the 

horse,  takes  the  reins  of  the  snaffle  together  in  his 

right  hand,  close  to  the  bit  and  under  the  chin,  the 

ends,   with  the  whip,   being   held   in   the   left   hand, 

and  leads  the  horse  forward  a  few  steps  at  a  time. 

Should  the  horse  refuse  to  move  forward  the  whip 

must   touch   him   just   behind   the   girth,   where  the 

spur  would  touch  him  if  he  were  mounted.     This 

lesson   is   repeated,   by  the  trainer  walking   on   the 

other    side,    reversing    the    position    of    his     hands. 

The  next  thing  is  to  make  the  horse  yield,  or  bend 

his  neck.     This  is  done  by  taking  the  snaffle-reins 

in  the  left  hand  in  front  of  the  horse's  nose,  holding 

the  hand  high  ;  and  the  curb-reins  together  in  the 

right  hand,   eight  inches  from  the  bit,  drawing  the 

snaffle  up  and  forward  and  the  curb  backward  until 

the    horse   drops   his   head   slightly   and    opens    his 

mouth.     This  action  on  his  part  must  be  rewarded 

24 


370  BAUCHER  S    METHOD  CH.  XV 

instantly  by  yielding  the  right  hand,  and  should  then 
be  repeated,  the  left  hand  being  used  to  keep  the 
head  up.  (It  is  a  fault  of  Baucher's  method,  soon 
recognised  by  some  of  his  followers,  and  especially 
by  Fillis,  that  he  made  his  horses  carry  their  heads 
too  low  ;  this  must  be  carefully  avoided.)  This 
operation  is  called  the  '  flexion  of  the  neck  and  of 
the  jaw,'  and,  although  by  some  writers  these  flex- 
ions are  treated  of  separately,  they  are  usually 
obtained  simultaneously. 

There  are  two  purposes  in  this  part  of  the  train- 
ing. While  a  well-made  horse  may  be  supposed  to 
assume  proper  positions  when  free  and  following  the 
instincts  which  prompt  his  action,  all  horses  are  not 
well  made,  and  even  those  which  are,  have  their 
equilibrium  altered  by  being  put  to  draught  or  by 
ha  vine;  a  man  on  their  back.  The  horse's  head  and 
neck,  overhanging  the  shoulders  as  they  do,  throw 
weight  on  the  fore-hand,  which  tends  to  make  the 
fore  lees  slow  in  their  movements,  and  also  causes 
the  horse  to  lue\  or  to  bore  on  the  bit.  Raisine 
and  drawing  back  the  head  and  neck,  as  are  done 
by  these  flexions,  improve  the  position  in  these  re- 
spects, but,  after  all,  accustom  the  horse  to  yield 
to  the  pressure  of  the  bit,  when  he  finds  that  by  so 
doing  he  avoids  the  discomfort  produced  by  it. 

Not  by  any  means  the  least  advantage  of  the 
process  is  that  it  educates  the  hand  of  the  operator, 
and  eives  it  that  liehtness  without  which  no  eo°d 
riding  or  driving  is  possible. 


CH.  XV  BAUCHER  S    METHOD  37  I 

As  the  neck  comes  in  and  up,  the  hind  legs  of  the 
horse  tend  to  come  in  more  under  his  body,  in  order 
to  preserve  his  general  balance. 

These  preliminary  flexions  were  made  by  Baucher 
with  the  horse  at  rest,  but  it  is  important,  as  Fillis 
has  pointed  out,  to  combine  them  with  a  forward 
motion,  so  as  to  prevent  the  horse  from  contracting 
the  habit  of  retaining  himself,  a  result  which  is  an 
objection  justly  urged  against  Baucher's  method. 
The  horse  should  be,  therefore,  kept  moving  for- 
ward while  the  flexions  are  being-  made,  even  when 
the  trainer  is  on  foot,  and  later  on,  when  the  trainer 
is  mounted,  the  horse  should  be  urged  forward  all 
the  time,  by  the  pressure  of  the  legs. 

The  flexions  thus  described  may  be  considered 
the  only  flexions  of  the  neck  necessary  for  driving 
purposes  ;  for  saddle-horses,  lateral  flexions,  turning 
the  head  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  are  added  ;  but 
they  can  be  easily  overdone,  and  sometimes  result 
in  teaching  the  horse  a  means  of  defence,  which  he 
uses  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  rider. 

After  the  neck  is  suppled,  the  next  thing  is  to 
bring  the  horse's  hind  legs  well  under  him.  If  a 
horse  is  observed  when  free  in  a  field,  it  will  be  seen 
that  in  his  quick  movements,  especially  in  turning, 
he  brings  his  hind  legs  forward,  so  as  to  throw  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  weight  upon  them,  and 
this  position  will  be  quickly  recognised  by  a  mounted 
man,  as  making  the  horse  more  pleasant  to  sit  and 
more  responsive  to  the  action  of  the  rider  than  if  he 


372  BAUCHER  S    METHOD  CH.  XV 

has  his  legs  stretched  out  behind  him.  This  placing 
of  the  hind  legs  is  best  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
the  spur. 

The  horse  beine  mounted,  his  head  and  neck 
having  been  brought  as  completely  as  possible  into 
position,  the  tightening  of  the  rider's  legs  and  press- 
ure back  of  the  girths  should  induce  him  to  move 
forward.  Since,  in  so  doing,  his  hind  legs  propel 
him,  this  pressure  is  usually  first  answered  by  the 
advance  of  one  of  his  hind  legs  under  his  body, 
followed  by  that  of  the  other.  His  forward  move- 
ment being  somewhat  restrained  by  the  bit,  but 
not  enough  to  stop  him,  he  will  step  forward  in  a 
position  slightly  different  from  that  which  he  would 
have  assumed  if  he  had  been  merely  led  forward  by 
the  head.  Thus,  the  combined  action  of  the  legs 
and  the  hand,  opposed  to  each  other,  will  gather 
the  horse,  throwing  more  of  his  weight  on  his  hind 
lees  and  liehtenine  his  fore-hand.  It  has  been 
assumed  that  merely  pressing  with  the  legs  will 
produce  the  desired  result,  and  with  some  horses  it 
will  do  so,  at  the  first  attempt  ;  but  in  many  cases 
more  vigorous  means  are  needed,  and  for  that  reason 
the  heel  is  armed  with  the  spur,  which,  however, 
must  be  used  at  first  with  oreat  caution,  for  fear  of 
exciting  the  horse  and  producing  a  defence. 

Whatever  may  be  the  reason,  a  slight  touch  with 
the  spur  will  induce  the  horse  to  lift  and  to  move 
forward  the  hind  lee  on  the  side  on  which  he  is 
touched,  and  this  fact  is  the  basis  of  the  whole  use 


CH.  XV  BAUCHER  S    METHOD  $7 2 

of  the  spur,  except  when  it  is  employed  vigorously 
as  a  punishment,  a  proceeding  not  at  all  to  be  recom- 
mended, a  blow  of  the  whip  being  much  better. 

Since  the  effect  of  the  spur  is  to  cause  the  horse 
to  move  his  hind-quarters  away  from  it,  a  pressure 
of  the  left  spur  will  turn  the  croup  to  the  right,  and 
one  from  the  right  spur  will  stop  or  reverse  that 
movement. 

Inasmuch  as  the  turning  of  the  horse's  head  to 
the  right  or  left  by  the  rein,  will  determine  his 
motion  in  these  directions,  the  rider,  when  the  horse 
is  accustomed  to  obey  all  these  indications,  has  the 
means  of  entirely  controlling  him.  By  the  bit,  he 
restrains  him,  places  his  head  in  a  position  to 
respond  to  the  action  of  the  hand,  and  turns  his 
fore-hand  to  either  side  ;  by  the  leg  and  spur,  he 
moves  him  forward,  brings  his  hind  legs  under  him, 
and  turns  his  croup  to  the  right  or  left ;  and  by 
skilfully  combining  these  effects  he  can  produce 
what  movements  he  desires,  and  all  the  accurate 
and  exaggerated  movements  which  characterise 
Haute  Ecole  riding. 

If,  in  backing  a  horse,  he  is  forced  backward  by 
mere  pressure  on  the  bit,  his  motion  will  be  awk- 
ward, his  hind  legs  being  stretched  out  to  resist  the 
force  which  is  urging  him.  The  proper  way  to  make 
him  back  is  to  begin  by  restraining  him  slightly,  and 
then  touching  him  with  one  spur  to  make  him  lift  one 
hind  foot ;  a  slightly  increased  pull  on  the  reins  will 
generally  make  him  move  to  the  rear,  bringing  that 


374  BAUCHER  S    METHOD  CH.  XV 

hind  foot  to  the  ground  somewhat  back  of  the  posi- 
tion which  it  previously  occupied.  A  touch  with  the 
other  spur  will  raise  the  other  hind  foot,  which,  re- 
sponding to  the  pressure  of  the  reins,  will  be  also 
replaced  further  back  ;  the  front  feet  will  follow,  and 
by  alternate  attacks  of  the  spur  the  horse  will  be 
made  to  walk  backward,  all  the  time  in  a  balanced 
position. 

This  is  one  of  the  regular  lessons,  but  it  must  be 
used  with  discretion,  because  when  a  horse  learns  to 
walk  backward,  he  will  sometimes  do  so  as  a  means 
of  defence.  All  harness-horses  should  back  freely 
when  called  upon. 

Just  as  regular  gymnastics  improve  the  action  of 
the  most  perfectly  formed  man,  this  training  improves 
that  of  the  most  perfectly  formed  horse  ;  it  is  not 
an  argument  against  the  svstem  to  sav  that  the 
horse,  having  been  made  for  his  own  purposes  of 
life,  cannot  be  improved  for  man's  uses. 

While,  therefore,  the  driving-horse  may  not  re- 
quire much  training  beyond  the  flexions  of  the  jaw 
and  neck,  the  further  training  of  his  hind-quarters 
will  give  him  lightness  and  grace  of  carriage,  which 
are  very  desirable. 

It  is  also  true  that  if  a  horse  is  excited  by  the  spur, 
the  whip,  or  the  voice,  and  at  the  same  time  some- 
what restrained  by  the  bit,  his  energy  of  movement 
will  be  partly  put  into  the  height  of  his  action,  instead 
of  its  being  all  put  into  the  forward  movement,  with 
the  result  of  increasing  his  brilliancy. 


CH.  XV  OLD    METHODS  375 

The  English  system  of  riding  being  based  on 
hunting  and  racing,  its  principal  object  is  to  get  the 
horse  forward  as  fast  as  possible,  without  much  at- 
tention to  his  manner  of  going-.  The  Continental 
system  is  based  upon  the  requirements  of  military 
service,  and,  in  the  training  of  horses,  the  methods 
used  are  adapted  to  making  the  horse  quick,  handy, 
and  obedient. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  the 
English  fashion  prevails,  but  in  the  West,  in  Texas, 
and  in  Mexico,  the  Spanish  style  of  riding,  with  its 
accompanying  horse  equipments,  is  adopted,  because 
it  is  suited  to  the  purposes  for  which  the  horse  is 
there  largely  used  :  herding  and  catching  cattle. 

English  professional  horse-breakers  being,  by 
nature  and  selection,  good  horsemen,  succeed  in 
giving  their  horses  good  manners,  without  working 
upon  any  system  which  they  distinctly  recognise  as 
such  ;  but  the  amateur  who  wishes  to  accomplish 
the  same  results,  should  have  a  good  system  to 
work  upon. 

Before  Baucher's  time,  the  suppling  of  a  horse 
was  produced  mainly  by  riding  him,  and  gradually 
obtaining  all  the  required  results  more  or  less  simul- 
taneously. The  horse  was  carefully  urged  forward 
by  the  rider's  legs,  and  restrained  by  the  rein,  until 
he  partly  assumed  the  gathered  position.  He  was 
then  ridden  in  a  circle,  which  was  gradually  made 
smaller  as  the  horse  became  more  handy,  the  head 
being  drawn  in  toward  the  centre  by  the  inner  rein, 


3J6  OLD    METHODS  CH.   XV 

and  the  croup  turned  out  by  the  pressure  of  the 
inside  leg,  until  the  horse  moved  nearly  sideways, 
his  fore  legs  being"  at  or  near  the  centre  of  the 
circle.  In  this  way  his  hind  legs  were  supplied,  and 
he  became  much  more  responsive  to  the  demands 
of  his  rider.  This  movement  is  called  shoulder  in. 
The  next  movement  was  that  of  croup  to  the  wall 
(the  work  was  assumed  to  be  done  in  a  riding- 
house)  ;  in  this  movement,  the  horse,  with  his  hind- 
quarters turned  to  the  wall  and  his  body  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  it,  was  moved  sideways  by  the  spur, 
while  his  head  was  turned  by  the  rein  to  look 
slightly  in  the  direction  toward  which  he  was  going. 
These  two  movements  constituted  the  whole  edu- 
cation of  the  horse  for  ordinary  purposes  ;  the  use 
of  the  pillars,  for  teaching  the  l  airs'  of  the  '  high 
school,'  such  as  the  croupade,  the  ballotade,  &c,  are 
outside  the  limits  of  our  present  subject. 

To  a  certain  extent,  the  same  results  are  obtained 
by  all  the  methods,  and  the  advocates  of  the  older 
ones  contend  that  the  horse  is  not  restrained  in  his 
forward  action  by  them  as  he  is  by  training  under 
the  Baucher  system.  But  the  old  method  required, 
from  the  first,  that  the  trainer  should  be  an  accom- 
plished and  determined  horseman,  because  he  en- 
countered difficulties  which  one  less  experienced 
could  not  overcome,  and  much  was  left  to  his  tact 
in  using  means  the  exact  effect  of  which  he  imper- 
fectly understood  ;  whereas,  Baucher  has  laid  down 
every    step  with    accuracy.     As  a  fact,   the    horses 


CH.  XV  GOOD    HANDS  2>77 

trained  by  his  method,  for  exhibition  purposes  in 
haute  ecole  riding,  are  far  superior  in  accuracy  of 
action  to  anything  that  was  dreamed  of  by  the 
trainers  before  his  time,  and  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  early  lessons  of  the  method  can  be  applied  on 
foot,  to  a  horse  that  is  too  young  to  ride,  commends 
it  to  the  breeder. 

It  is  not  at  all  my  intention  to  attempt  to  teach 
here,  in  the  limits  of  these  few  pages,  any  sys- 
tem of  handling,  or  dressing,  a  horse,  but  only  to 
suggest  that  if  the  driving  man  will  undertake 
to  improve  his  horses  by  either  of  the  methods  : 
Baucher's  or  his  successors',  he  will  reap  great 
benefit  from  so  doing  in  the  improvement,  not  only 
of  the  animals,  but  especially  of  his  own  hands. 

The  secret  of  good  driving  is  to  have  good 
hands,  and  while  good  hands  may  be  to  some 
extent  a  gift,  they  are  to  be  acquired  mainly  by 
practice  and  thought.  In  the  saddle,  no  man  can 
have  good  hands  who  has  not  a  perfectly  firm  seat, 
so  that  the  action  on  the  reins  may  be  absolutely 
independent  of  the  movements  of  the  body.  The 
action  of  the  hand  in  driving  is  coarser  than  in 
riding,  where  the  hand,  holding  light  reins,  is  closer 
to  the  horse's  mouth,  and  the  action  of  the  animal 
under  the  rider  indicates  to  him  instantly  the  horse's 
intentions  ;  but  the  principles  are  the  same,  and 
a  good  hand  in  the  saddle  means  a  good  hand 
on  the  driving-cushion.  Regularity  and  accuracy 
of   pace  can   be   much  better  cultivated  under   the 


378  BAUCHER  CH.  XV 

saddle,   and  every  riding   lesson,  judiciously  given, 
will  improve  the  horse  for  driving. 

The  training  cf  a  horse  which  is  to  be  finally 
put  into  a  team,  may  be  advantageously  continued 
by  driving  him  single,  to  a  dog-cart,  where,  the 
whip  replacing  the  spur,  some  of  the  same  effects 
obtained  under  the  saddle  may  be  repeated  ;  and 
the  method  of  training  by  driving  on  foot  with 
the  long  reins,  described  by  Captain  Haves  in  his 
Illustrated  Horse  Breaking,  may  be  also  used  with 
great  advantage,  at  all  stages  of  the  work. 

In  our  American  climate,  with  so  many  winter 
days  on  which  riding  out  of  doors  with  any  pleasure 
is  impossible,  the  amateur  will  find  that  the  hours 
passed  on  the  tan  of  the  riding-house,  in  training  a 
favourite  horse,  according  to  some  good  system,  will 
be  among  the  pleasantest  of  his  '  horsey'  pastimes. 

All  professional  riding-masters  have  intentionally, 
or  unconsciously,  made  use  of  one  or  other  of  the 
old  methods,  or  of  a  combination  of  them,  generally 
imparted  by  tradition. 

When  Baucher's  book  (translated  into  English 
by  John  Sergeant  and  George  H.  Boker,  of 
Philadelphia,  in  1851)  first  appeared  in  America,  * 
some  amateurs  who  had  been  working  somewhat 
blindly  on  the  old  systems,  recognised  its  value, 
especially  when  illustrated  by  the  beautiful  perform- 


*  The  first  edition  of  Baucher's  book  was  published  in  Paris  in 
1S42. 


CH.  XV  PHILADELPHIA    RIDING    CLUB  379 

ances  of  two  horses  trained  by  Baucher,  and  ridden 
by  one  of  his  pupils,  Caroline  Loyo,  in  the  old 
Walnut  Street  Circus.  A  riding-school  in  Sansom 
Street  above  Eighth  Street,  long  since  torn  down, 
was  the  scene  of  the  first  applications  of  Baucher's 
method,  by  several  enthusiastic  horsemen,  Judge 
Cadwalader,  John  D.  Bleight,  and  others,  and 
out  of  those  pleasant  meetings  for  companionship 
and  discussion  grew  the  The  Philadelphia  Riding 
Club,  the  first,  and  for  many  years  the  only  home 
of  that  kind  of  equestrian  practice  in  the  United 
States. 


n 


80  CH.   XVI 


CHAPTER    XVI 

HORSES    FOR    COACH    OR    DRAG 

Horses  for  coach  or  drag  will  vary  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  owner  and  the  depth  of  his  pocket. 
For  a  drag,  horses  of  fifteen-three  hands,  all  four  of 
the  same  size,  will  be  generally  found  the  most  useful. 
Of  these  the  lightest  and  quickest  should  be  selected 
for  the  lead,  and  the  strongest  put  at  the  wheel. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  find  four  horses  of  the  same 
height,  of  which  two  will  weigh  fort)'  or  fifty  pounds 
apiece  more  than  the  other  two.  The  team  shown 
in  Plate  XXIX.  corresponds  to  this  description. 

The  extreme  type  of  racing  thoroughbred  does 
not  look  in  place  to  a  coach,  but  the  half-bred  horse 
of  the  English  hunter  style  is  in  every  way  suitable, 
although  he  is  not  always  easy  to  drive  when  multi- 
plied by  four.  The  nearer  that  this  latter  type  is 
approached,  the  better,  as  f     as  appearance  goes. 

The  half-bred  mare  shown  in  Plate  XXX.,  fifteen- 
three  hands,  bv  a  thoroughbred  sire  out  of  a  trot- 
ting  dam,  hunted  many  seasons  and  driven  as  a 
leader,  is  as  nearly  as  possible  perfection  in  all  her 
points. 

The  hackney,  as  now  produced  in  America  and 
in  England,  makes  an  admirable  coach-horse  when 
laree   enough,    and   if    his   recent   introduction    into 


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CH.  XVI  HACKNEY  38 1 


America  has  had  no  other  advantage,  it  has  raised 
the  standard  of  form  in  the  driving-horse.  The  best 
horse  will  be  one  resulting  from  judicious  crosses  of 
the  hackney  and  the  trotter,  improving  the  form 
of  the  latter  by  giving  him  a  finer  head,  a  better 
carriage  of  it,  and  a  less  sloping  rump,  and  by 
heightening  his  action  without  too  much  diminishing 
his  speed. 

The  free  forward  action,  with  sufficient  height, 
which  some  exceptional  trotters  possess,  is  the  per- 
fection of  gait  for  either  the  road  or  the  park,  and 
in  any  horse,  a  trot  approaching  it,  can  be  often 
improved  by  judicious  handling  under  the  saddle. 

The  Morgan  horse,  formerly  a  great  favourite  in 
New  England,  is  in  many  respects  not  unlike  the 
hackney,  both  in  good  qualities  and  defects.  He 
is  '  near  the  ground,'  that  is,  rather  short-legged,  as 
is  shown  by  his  heavy  weight  compared  with  his 
height,  and  this  form,  although  in  some  eyes  it 
detracts  from  showiness,  is  the  best  adapted  to  hard 
work  in  harness  or  under  the  saddle,  as  many  hard 
riding  hunting-men  know  ;  lego-mess  is  a  great  fault 
in  a  horse. 

This  breed,  less  talked  about  now  than  formerly, 
has  had  a  strong  influence  upon  the  horses  of  New 
England ;  it  combines  the  good  qualities  of  fair 
speed,  great  endurance,  fine  up-headed  carriage,  and, 
above  all,  good  temper  ;  the  defects  being  want  of 
size,  and  a  certain  coarseness  and  shortness  of  neck. 
Having  rather  upright  pasterns,  the  Morgans  lack 


?82  MORGAN    HORSE  CH.  XVI 


J 


the  springiness  and  grace  required  in  a  saddle-horse, 
or  the  highest  class  of  drag  leader,  but  to  public- 
coach  purposes  they  are  admirably  adapted,  and 
several  of  the  coaches  running-  out  of  New  York 
have  been  horsed  by  animals  selected  in  Maine. 

In  the  New  England  States  it  is  usual  to  describe 
a  horse  by  weight  as  well  as  by  height,  and  the  two 
together  give  a  better  idea  of  him  than  the  height 
alone. 

A  large  sixteen-hand  horse,  rather  clumsy  for  a 
wheeler,  will  weigh  1120  pounds,  but  from  1070  to 
1090  is  heavy  enough  for  an  ordinary  wheeler.  A 
fifteen-three  horse,  suitable  for  lead  or  wheel,  will 
weigh  from  1000  to  1040  pounds  ;  and  one  fifteen- 
two,  from  950  to  990  pounds.  The  Morgan  horses 
of  1855  (described  in  Linsley's  Morgan  Horse), 
when  of  fourteen-two  hands,  weighed  from  1000  to 
1050  pounds  ;  of  fifteen  hands,  1025  to  1076  pounds  ; 
and  the  average  weight  of  twenty-two  horses  is 
given  at  1040  pounds,  their  heights  ranging  from 
fourteen  to  fifteen  hands  ;  these  weights  show  that 
the  horses  were  very  short-legged,  since  their  bodies 
were  not  clumsy. 

For  the  same  breed  of  horses,  from  that  date  down 
to  the  present  time,  the  weights  are  about  the  same.* 

There  is  a  type  of  carriage-horse  now  happily  dis- 
appearing from  the  show-ring  and  the  best  dealers' 
stables, — awkward  and  long  legged,  with  a  head  of 

*  Rider  and  Driver,  January  12,   1895. 


CH.  XVI  HORSES    FOR    A    TEAM  ^8 


0"J 


one  kind,  legs  of  another,  and  body  of  a  third, 
which  is  to  be  avoided  for  all  purposes. 

The  horses  of  a  drag-team  should  have  'quality,' 
— that  is,  a  certain  fineness  and  distinction  which 
are  not  at  all  incompatible  with  strength.  Weedy, 
long-legged,  tucked  up,  thin-necked  horses  are  out 
of  place  to  a  coach,  especially  at  the  wheel,  however 
well  they  may  suit  a  hansom. 

Horses  over  sixteen  hands  are  unnecessarily  large  ; 
their  rumps  are  too  close  to  the  foot-board  ;  those 
under  fifteen-two  are  somewhat  small  for  an  ordi- 
nary coach,  although  if  they  are  up-headed  they  may 
do  for  leaders. 

For  park  driving,  the  leaders  may  have  a  good 
deal  of  action,  but  it  does  not  do  for  long  drives,  and 
is  not,  to  my  taste  at  least,  as  good  as  the  long 
and  only  moderately  high  action  which  some  trot- 
ters have.  A  coach-team,  to  be  perfect,  must  have 
a  sporting  appearance,  and  look  as  if  they  were 
good  for  long,  continuous  work,  and  not  for  trotting 
all  day  in  a  space  of  a  hundred  yards.  The  horse- 
shows  of  the  past  few  years  have  opened  the  eyes 
of  judges  and  of  the  public  to  the  fact  that  good 
action  is  not  incompatible  with  ability  to  get  over 
the  ground,  and,  in  a  coach-team,  the  combination 
is  exactly  what  should  be  aimed  at. 

Lord  Algernon  St.  Maur  (Driving-.  Badminton 
Library,  1889,  P-  l92)  says:  'I  dislike  carriage- 
'  horses  in  a  coach  ;  they  are  quite  different  animals 
'  from  coach-horses  ;'   this  is  true,  but  applies  more 


o 


84  COACH-HORSES  CH.  XVI 


to  England  and  to  some  years  ago,  than  to  America 
in  the  present  day.  The  old-fashioned,  large,  eight- 
spring  landaus  and  barouches  required  tall,  heavy 
horses,  which  were  reined  up  tightly  ;  but  the  mod- 
ern landau  is  not  a  heavy  nor  very  high  carriage, 
and  the  wheelers  of  a  coach  look  well  to  it  if  they 
have  sufficient  action  ;  and  in  all  but  exceedingly 
large  establishments,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the 
horses  for  several  purposes.  The  opinion  is,  how- 
ever, worth  bearing  in  mind,  inasmuch  as  a  coaching 
man  would  make  a  mistake  were  he  to  put  to  his 
drag  a  pair  of  carriage-horses  of  the  type  just 
mentioned. 

The  most  nearly  perfect  team  is  that  which  is 
the  best  matched  in  temper,  size,  action,  pace,  and 
colour.  A  cross  team  of  two  colours,  that  is,  off 
leader  and  near  wheeler  alike,  is  always  good,  but 
four  of  different  colours,  require  exceptional  '  qual- 
ity' to  bring  the  team  into  the  front  rank.  A  team 
with  two  horses  of  one  colour  on  one  side  and 
two  of  another  colour  on  the  other,  always  has  a 
one-sided  look,  and  leaders  matched  and  wheelers 
matched  in  pairs  as  to  colour,  look  too  much  like 
two  pairs.  These  remarks  apply,  however,  to 
strongly  marked  colours,  greys,  &c.  ;  bays  and 
browns  may  be  put  together  in  any  way.  A  cross 
team  of  two  greys  and  two  dark  horses  has  usually 
a  gay  and  brilliant  look. 

Some  qualities  are*  sufficient  to  exclude  any  horse  ; 
a  kicker  is  no  better  in  one  place  than  another  ;  and 


CH.  XVI  COACH-HORSES  385 

an  incorrigible  puller  should  be  sold,  given  away, 
or  shot,  rather  than  be  put  in  a  team.  A  horse  may 
pull,  from  some  cause  which  may  be  removed  ;  if 
he  can  be  cured,  very  well  ;  but  a  regular  puller 
spoils  all  the  pleasure  of  driving,  worries  the  other 
horses,  and  makes  impossible  any  fine  handling  of 
the  team. 

Some  coachmen  advocate  having  the  leaders  taller 
than  the  wheelers,  but  it  is  not  generally  a  symmet- 
rical arrangement,  especially  as  the  leaders,  when 
seen  from  the  front,  will,  from  the  perspective, 
always  look  the  larger. 

It  is  the  general  practice  to  put  the  smaller  horses 
on  the  lead,  where  they  certainly  look  the  best.  In 
any  case,  the  heavier  horses  should  be  at  the  wheel  ; 
they  have  to  control  the  coach  in  going  down-hill, 
and  in  turns,  where  the  leaders  are  held  back  ;  and 
they  may  be  considerably  coarser  than  the  leaders 
without  hurting  the  appearance  of  the  team.  At 
races,  when  a  coach  is  on  the  grass,  a  pair  of 
wheelers  that  can  do  more  than  their  share  in  start- 
ing the  coach  on  the  soft  ground,  will  add  to  the 
coachman's  comfort  and  perhaps  save  a  balking 
match. 

Undoubtedly,  the  leaders  should  be  the  freest ; 
it  is  disagreeable  to  have  the  wheelers  free  and  the 
leaders  slack,  'floating  leaders,'  as  a  well-known 
coaching  man  calls  them. 

Of  the  two  leaders,  the  lazier  should  be  on  the 
off  side,  because  it  is  more  easy  to  get  at  him  with 


386  COACH-HORSES  CH.   XVI 

the  whip  on  that  side  than  on  the  other.  If  they 
are  equally  free  and  there  is  any  difference  in  size, 
the  taller  horse  should  be  on  the  off  side,  since  he  is 
likely  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  road,  which  is  lower 
than  the  centre. 

Of  the  wheelers,  the  lazy  horse  should  be  on  the 
near  side,  under  the  whip,  and  it  is  well  to  put  the 
stronger  wheeler  on  the  gutter  side  (the  off  side  in 
America  and  the  near  side  in  England)  so  as  to  pull 
the  coach  out  of  the  low  ground  to  the  centre  of 
the  road,  after  having  gone  to  the  side  in  meeting 
a  vehicle,  and  that  is  also  a  reason  for  putting  the 
taller  horse  on  the  gutter  side,  since  he  may  be 
generally  assumed  to  be  the  stronger. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  accustom  the  horses  to  go  in 
any  place  in  the  team  ;  but  if  a  horse  does  better 
in  one  place  than  another,  it  is  well  to  keep  him 
there,  and  this  will  often  be  the  case,  especially  in  a 
public-coach  team,  where  the  horses  cannot  be  so 
carefully  selected  in  the  beginning,  as  for  a  drag,  and 
where  one  horse  sometimes  fancies  a  place,  and 
will,  therefore,  work  cheerfully  in  it,  and  unsatisfac- 
torily in  any  other. 

As  to  the  pace  :  horses,  to  be  pleasant  to  drive, 
should  be  able  to  go  eleven  miles  an  hour.  On  a 
good  level  road,  a  team  should  take  a  coach  along- 
at  nine  miles  an  hour  for  two  hours,  but  they  will 
not  do  this  unless  they  can  go  a  good  deal  faster  ; 
a  horse  continuously  pushed  to  the  top  of  his  speed 
never  travels  pleasantly,   and  soon  tires,  but  if  he 


CH.  XVI  COACH-HORSES  387 

can  do  eleven,  he  will  easily  do  nine,  which  is  quite 
within  his  powers. 

A  team  to  a  private  coach  not  too  heavily  loaded 
ought  to  do  from  eighteen  to  twenty  miles  in  an 
afternoon  drive,  on  fairly  level  roads,  and  can  do, 
day  after  day,  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  miles, 
divided  into  two  parts,  with  a  couple  of  hours  for 
rest  and  feed  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Horses  are  usually  clipped  in  the  winter  ;  indeed 
at  any  season,  when  they  require  it  for  appearance, 
and  it  undoubtedly  adds  much  to  their  comfort 
when  doing  fast  work.  In  our  climate,  however, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  they  sometimes  re- 
quire the  protection  of  a  blanket  when  they  are 
not  moving  ;  it  is  thoughtless  and  cruel  to  keep 
them  standing  uncovered  on  a  cold  day. 

The  length  of  the  tails  of  coach-horses  is  a  matter 
of  fashion.  In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century  the 
tails  of  all  horses  were  cut  short  (or  docked),  and 
pricked  (by  cutting  the  under  sinews),  so  that  they 
stood  up  very  high  (see  Cordery's  Picture,  Plate  I.). 
Later,  the  tails  were  banged  ;  that  is,  cut  square 
just  at  the  end  of  the  bone,  as  the  tails  of  race 
horses  are  now  ;  and  the  fashion  has  ao-ain  come 
round  to  the  very  short  tail,  but  without  pricking. 
Undoubtedly,  the  tail  being  short  makes  the  horse 
look  '  smarter'  and  prevents  his  getting  it  over  the 
rein.  The  very  long  tails  of  the  trotters  of  some 
years  ago  would  certainly  look  out  of  place  in  front 
of  a  coach. 


388  COST   OF    COACHING  CH.  XVI 

Horses  are  sometimes  trained,  formerly  more  than 
at  present,  to  stand,  when  in  harness,  with  their  hind 
legs  stretched  out.  It  is  done  to  prevent  the  horse 
from  jumping  forward  when  he  hears  or  feels  some 
one  stepping  into  the  carriage, — an  unpleasant  trick, 
very  damaging  to  hats  and  bonnets.  A  horse  can- 
not do  this  if  his  hind  leers  are  much  stretched 
out,  since  he  must  slather  himself  before  making 
the  movement.  The  position  is,  however,  an  ugly 
one  for  a  coach-horse,  and  shows  at  once  that  he 
is  a  carriage-horse. 

COST    OF    COACHING 

As  to  the  actual  cost  of  private  coaching  it  is 
difficult  to  give  exact  figures,  prices  vary  so  much 
in  different  localities,  but  it  may  be  said,  that  a  well 
turned-out  coach  need  not  necessarily  add  much  to 
the  expenses  of  a  good  sized  stable.  Where  four 
horses  are  kept  for  any  purpose,  it  is  easy  so  to 
select  them  according  to  the  hints  o-iven  in  the  re- 
marks  on  Horses,  that  they  can  be  put  together 
as  a  team.  Four  horses  in  a  stable  mean,  under 
any  circumstances,  two  men,  and  all  that  is  neces- 
sary in  addition  is  the  coach,  which  with  its  vari- 
ous appointments  can  be  had  for  less  than  three 
thousand  dollars.  As  has  been  remarked  in  the 
Chapter  on  Harness,  two  sets  of  pair-horse  harness, 
properly  made,  are  right  for  four  horses,  and  thus 
equipped,  the  lover  of  coaching  can  have  as  much 
of   it   as  he  desires,   without  interfering    materially 


CH.  XVI  COST    OF    COACHING  389 

with  other  uses  of  his  stable.  Two  saddle-horses 
do  not  make  bad  leaders,  in  fact,  they  often  make 
the  best ;  and  a  man  and  his  wife  may  have  their 
driving,  their  riding,  and  their  coaching,  all  within 
the  limits  of  a  modest  establishment,  while  it  is 
quite  certain  that  any  man  who  cares  enough  for 
his  coaching  to  obtain  it  in  this  way,  will  enjoy  it 
much  more  than  he  who  merely  buys  a  team  be- 
cause he  thinks  it  fashionable  or  wishes  to  have 
something  better  than  his  neighbours. 

There  is  so  much  already  in  print  about  Stable 
Management,  the  Care  of  Horses,  and  Stable  Ex- 
penses, that  these  subjects  need  not  be  touched 
upon  here. 


39°  ch.  xvii 


CHAPTER   XVII 

THE    WHIP   AND    ITS    USE 

While  coachmen  differ  somewhat  in  their  ideas 
as  to  the  weight,  stiffness,  &c,  of  a  whip,  there  are 
certain  dimensions  and  characteristics  which  may  be 
considered  as  standard,  and  from  which  the  devia- 
tions are,  after  all,  very  slight. 

The  whip  best  adapted  to  four-in-hand  driving 
has  come  down  to  us  from  the  palmy  days  of  Eng- 
lish coaching,  when  thousands  were  made  for,  and 
used  by  the  most  accomplished  coachmen. 

It  has  a  straight  stick,  crop,  or  cross,  with  the 
thong  attached  by  what  is  called  the  quill  (from  its 
being  made  of  goose  quills),  which,  being  in  form  a 
prolongation  of  the  stick,  is  stiff  at  its  root,  gradually 
merging  into  the  thong  proper  ;  the  quill  and  the 
first  part  of  the  thong  forming  a  bow  or  portion  of 
a  circle  (see  Fig.  159). 

This  quill  is  characteristic  of  the  English  whip, 
the  whip  of  other  countries  having  a  stiff  stick  to 
which  the  thong  is  attached  by  a  loop.  The  stick, 
or  crop,  is  made  of  an  elastic  wood :  holly,  yew, 
blackthorn,  lancewood,  or  white  hickory. 

Holly  is  by  far  the  most  generally  used,  and  is 
obtained  from  second  growth  shoots,  six  or  seven 
years   old.     The    sticks    are    carefully  selected,   the 


CH.  XVII  STICK    OF    THE    WHIP  39 1 

straightest  of  course  being  preferred,  but  those 
which  are  somewhat  crooked  can  be  steamed  and 
straightened  by  the  maker.  They  are  cut  to  nearly 
the  length  required,  and  stored,  seasoned,  and  dried 
with  great  care,  being-  examined  at  intervals,  and 
kept  straight,  the  whole  operation  requiring,  with 
the  best  makers,  a  period  of  about  five  years. 
They  are  then  trimmed  to  their  final  shape,  stained, 
varnished,  and  mounted.  The  varnishing  is  of  great 
importance  in  protecting  the  stick  from  the  effects 
of  dampness,  and  every  maker  has  his  special  way 
of  doing-  it,  the  work  of  some  makers  beino-  far 
superior  to  that  of  others. 

The  stick  should  be  springy  but  not  soft,  and  must 
be  proportioned  to  the  weight  of  the  thong  ;  a  four- 
horse  whip  requires  to  be  stiffer  than  a  pair-horse 
whip,  which  has  a  short  thong. 

The  whole  length  Gf  the  stick  should  be  five  feet, 
measured  from  the  metal  butt  of  the  handle  to  the 
end,  which  end  is  marked  by  the  knot  always  worked 
on  the  quill.  Five  feet,  one  inch  and  a  half,  is  the 
extreme  length  that  the  stick  should  have. 

The  stick  usually  has  a  handle,  but  some  sticks 
show  the  wood  throughout  from  butt  to  knot ;  they 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  balance  as  well  in  the  hand  as 
those  that  have  handles.  Rabbit-bitten  hollies  *  are 
much  fancied  ;  they  are  found  in  holly  plantations 
frequented  by  rabbits  ;  these  animals  eat  the  bark 

*  See  note  on  page  414. 


392  HANDLE    OF    THE    WHIP  CH.   XVII 

near  the  ground,  and  leave  it  in  irregular  patterns 
on  the  portion  which  is  used  as  the  butt  of  the  stick. 
The  natural  knots  of  the  holly  are  usually  the  proper 
distance  apart  to  look  well  on  the  stick  ;  they  are  filed 
to  the  proper  shape,  and  if  there  are  not  enough  of 
them,  artificial  ones  are  made  by  leaving  elevations 
when  reducing  the  size  of  the  stick.  In  some  whips 
the  knots  are  left  quite  prominent,  in  others  they 
show  slightly  ;  this  is  a  matter  of  taste.  The  ma- 
jority of  coachmen  like  to  have  a  few  knots  close 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  stick,  to  keep  the  thong 
from  sliding  down  when  it  is  caught  up. 

White  hickory,  worked  perfectly  plain,  without 
any  knots,  makes  a  beautiful  stick  and  looks  like 
ivory.  It  is  particularly  pleasant  to  handle  if 
properly  proportioned,  but  unless  the  thong  is  very 
soft,  it  is  liable  to  slip  down  the  stick.  Owing  to 
the  stick  having  no  knots,  the  thong  can  be  quickly 
freed  from  it  for  use. 

A  good  holly  stick  should  have  a  diameter  of  six- 
tenths  of  an  inch  where  it  leaves  the  collar  or  ferule, 
and  of  three-tenths  of  an  inch  at  its  upper  end.  A 
hickory  stick,  being  heavier  and  stiffer,  should  be 
very  little  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  at  the  upper  end. 

Some  coachmen  fancy  a  '  dog-legged  stick  ;'  that 
is,  one  with  a  crook  more  or  less  square,  a  short 
distance  above  the  ferule,  but  it  is  certainly  not 
handsome,  and  usually  it  is  not  pleasant  to  handle. 

The  handle,  or  hand-piece,  of  the  whip,  is  ten  and 
a  half  inches    long,   including  its  ferule,   or  collar, 


CH.  XVII  HANDLE    OF    THE    WHIP  393 

and  its  cap.  To  make  the  handle,  the  stick  is  cut 
down  to  a  cylindrical  form  about  four-tenths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  from  the  butt  to  the  point  where 
the  collar  is  to  be,  and  an  iron  tube  eight  and  a 
half  inches  long-,  fitting-  this  cylindrical  part  tightly, 
is  pushed  on,  and  cemented  to  it.  This  tube  is 
of  such  thickness  as  to  weigh  about  one  ounce. 
Tow  is  evenly  wound  round  the  tube  until  it  has 
assumed  the  shape,  and  nearly  the  size,  that  the 
finished  handle  is  to  have,  larger  at  the  butt  than 
at  the  collar  ;  over  the  tow,  paper  is  pasted,  and 
over  this  the  final  covering  of  the  handle  is  put  on. 
The  ferule,  or  collar,  which  has  been  slipped  on  the 
stick  before  wrapping,  is  pulled  backward  to  its 
place  on  the  covering  and  cemented,  and  the  cap 
at  the  butt  is  cemented  on. 

The  large  end  of  a  well-proportioned  handle  is 
nine-tenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  small  end 
six  and  a  half  tenths.  The  cap  will  be  as  much 
larger  as  the  thickness  of  the  metal  makes  it,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  the  collar,  which  tapers  enough 
to  fit  over  the  leather  of  six  and  a  half  tenths  and 
the  stick  of  six-tenths  of  an  inch  diameter. 

For  a  four-in-hand  whip  the  handle  should  be 
covered  with  pig-skin.  It  may  be  put  on  plain 
with  a  neat  seam  down  its  length,  the  usual  way 
for  a  drag  whip,  or  it  may  be  wound  helically 
round,  which  is  right  for  a  public-coach  whip,  and 
is  somewhat  less  slippery  when  wet. 

The  butt-cap  and  the  collar  should   be   perfectly 


394  THONG    OF    THE    WHIP  CH.  XVII 

plain,  and  made  of  silver  or  of  brass,  always  of  the 
same  metal  with  which  the  harness  is  mounted. 
Their  proportions  affect  the  appearance  of  the  whip, 
and  they  should  be  neither  too  light  nor  too  heavy. 
The  collar  is  the  proper  place  on  which  to  engrave 
a  name  or  a  monogram. 

A  stick  which  has  no  handle, — a  rabbit-bitten 
stick,  for  instance, — has  a  butt-cap,  but  no  collar. 

The  thong  is  of  white  leather  made  from  horse- 
hide,  other  leather,  such  as  sheep-skin,  being  too  soft 
and  absorbent ;  it  must  be  plaited  tightly  without 
being  very  hard,  and  is  usually  tapered  regularly 
from  the  quill  to  the  small  end.  A  thong  is  some- 
times made  with  a  slight  belly  or  swell,  commencing 
about  two  feet  from  the  quill  ;  it  is  easier  to  catch 
than  a  tapered  thong,  but  not  so  good  to  hit  with. 

The  butt-end  of  the  thong  is  stiffened  by  several 
pieces  of  quill  worked  into  it,  and  the  stick  is  pushed 
into  the  tube  thus  made,  until  its  point  comes  oppo- 
site to  the  knot  worked  on  the  thong  (Fig.  162*)  ; 
the  pieces  of  quill,  and  the  ends  of  hide  of  which 
the  thono;  is  made,  come  down  on  the  sides  of  the 
stick,  and  are  bound  to  it  by  waxed  silk. 

The  quill  has  a  bend  or  turn  up,  which  is  put  on 
the  stick  opposite  to  the  seam  on  the  handle,  and  the 
whip  must  be  always  so  held  that  the  seam  is  down 
and   the  bend  of  the  quill  up.     There  is  something 

*  In  Fig.  162  the  knot  shows  at  the  point  where  the  broad  pieces 
of  leather  commence  to  separate.  The  two  pieces  of  quill  also  show 
below  the  knot. 


CH.  XVII  THONG    OF    THE    WHIP  395 

forlorn  about  a  whip  without  a  quill,  or  a  whip  held 
upside  down,  in  which  position  it  can  neither  be 
properly  caught,  nor  properly  used  on  a  horse. 

The  stamp  of  the  maker,  which  is  on  the  stick 
above  the  collar,  opposite  to  the  seam  and  on  the 
same  side  as  the  turn  up  of  the  quill,  indicates  the 
side  of  the  whip  which  is  to  be  uppermost  in  the 
hand.  The  pleasant  feeling  of  a  whip  in  the  hand  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  make  of  the  quill,  and  a  whip 
is  ruined  if  the  quill  is  allowed  to  get  out  of  shape. 

Good  thongs  can  be  had  only  from  the  best 
makers.  The  thong  terminates  in  a  point,  called 
by  whip-makers  the  lasJi.  It  is  sometimes  made  of 
whip-cord,  but  is  much  better  of  the  same  material 
as  the  thong,  since  the  cord,  when  wet,  is  apt  to 
wrap  round  parts  of  the  harness. 

Silk  points,  of  any  colour,  are  entirely  out  of  place 
on  a  coach  whip,  or,  in  fact,  on  any  whip  thong. 

A  finished  whip  should  have  the  following  quali- 
ties :  It  should  feel  light  in  the  hand,  springy,  not 
as  if  it  were  too  heavy  at  the  point,  and  not  'dead.' 
With  the  thong  caught  up  (as  described  further  on) 
it  should  balance  at  a  point  twenty-one  and  a  half 
inches  from  the  butt,  or  about  one-third  of  the  total 
length  of  the  stick  ;  accurately,  36  per  cent.  If  the 
balancing  point  is  further  from  the  butt,  the  whip 
will  feel  heavy  in  the  hand. 

The  spring,  or  stiffness,  must  be  measured  by  the 
feeling,  but  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  nu- 
merical standard,  several  whips  of  the  best  quality 


396 


SPRING    OF    THE    WHIP 


CH.   XVII 


were  experimented  with,  and  were  found  to  have 
a  deflection  of  about  eight  inches  at  a  point  four 
feet  two  inches  from  the  collar,  or  near  the  knot, 
when  a  weight  of  ten  ounces,  avoirdupois,  was  hung 
at  that  point,  the  whip  being  supported  at  the  collar. 
The  following  Table  gives  the  details  of  these 
experiments  : — 


Description  of  Whip. 


No.  I. 


Diameter   of  handle    in 
iooths  of  an  inch  : 
At  the  butt 

At  the  collar  .... 

Diameter     of     stick    in 
iooths  of  an  inch  : 
At  the  collar   .... 

At  the  upper  end    .    . 

Length  of  handle, 
inches 

Length  of  stick,  in- 
cluding handle,  to 
knot,   feet  and  inches 

Length  of  thong,  from 
knot,   feet  and  inches 

Deflection  with  weight 
of  10  ounces  at  a 
point  4  ft.  2  in.  from 
collar,  inches  .... 

Total  weight  of  whip, 
ounces,  avoirdupois    . 

Distance  of  point  of 
balance  from  butt, 
inches 

Percentage  of  this  dis- 
tance in  total  length 
of  stick 


70 
65 


60 

29 


5  0% 
12  8 

6^ 


No.  II. 


90 
64 


58 
30 


No.  III. 


23 


38 


5  °l/z 
12  8 

sy2 


85 
60 


55 
29 

10^ 

5  0% 

12  6 


No.  IV. 


21  V, 


36 


23X 


37 


88 
62 


60 

27 

io# 

5  iyi 

12  10 


No.  V.  No.  VI. 


No.VII. 


21 


34 


57 
55 


52 
23 


5  itf 

'3  9 

9lA 


23 


4i 


80 

70 


57 
26 


4  10.^ 
12  2 

9 

8^ 

21 


36 


80 
70 


60 


ioy. 


48^ 
11  9 


22 


39 


No.  V.  has  no  handle.      Nos.  VI.  and  VII.  are  jointed  whips. 


CH.  XVII  BALANCE    OF    THE    WHIP  397 

Nos.  II.  and  III.  may  be  considered  standard 
whips. 

No  V.,  a  light  rabbit-bitten  whip  with  no  handle, 
T5o2oths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ten  and  a  half  inches 
from  the  butt  (the  place  of  the  collar),  had  a  de- 
flection of  nine  and  a  half  inches.  This  is  an 
extremely  pleasant  whip  to  handle  with  a  properly 
proportioned  light  thong.  It  is  really  a  tandem 
whip. 

Nos.  VI.  and  VII.  are  jointed  whips  made  to 
carry  on  a  board,  as  spare  whips  (Fig.  160),  and 
such  whips,  owing  to  the  screwed  joint,  are  apt  to 
be  less  springy  than  an  ordinary  whip  ;  these  two 
examples,  however,  are  very  good.  On  them,  the 
point  of  attachment  of  the  ten-ounce  weight  came 
somewhat  above  the  knot  on  the  quill,  owing  to  the 
shortness  of  the  stick. 

The  pressure  upon  the  thumb,  of  even  a  well- 
balanced  whip,  is  considerable,  at  least  as  much  as 
twenty  ounces  when  the  stick  is  held  at  the  collar, 
owing  to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whip  being 
twice  as  far  from  the  butt  as  is  the  collar.  The 
twisting  strain  on  the  hand  is  caused  by  this  lever- 
age, of  ten  inches  against  the  breadth  of  the  hand, 
which  is  only  four.  This  strain  is  usually  severely 
felt  by  the  beginner,  for  which  reason  a  light  whip 
is  desirable.  If  the  butt-cap  is  weighted  to  im- 
prove the  balance  it  makes  the  whole  whip  too 
heavy. 

In  buying  a  whip,  the  beginner  should  avail  him- 


398 


HANGING    UP    THE    WHIP 


CH.  XVII 


self  of  the  aid  of  an  expert  who  can  select  for  him 

one  that  is  really  good,  as  a 
standard  by  which  future  pur- 
chases can  be  made  ;  a  man  who 
has  been  using  whips  not  of  the 
best  quality  will  be  astonished, 
upon  getting  hold  of  something 
exactly  right,  to  find  how  far 
superior  it  is  to  those  which  he 
has  been  handling". 

Inasmuch  as  a  good  whip  can 
be  soon  ruined  by  being  im- 
properly taken  care  of,  it  is  im- 
portant to  keep  the  quill  and 
upper  part  of  the  thong  in  shape, 
by  hanging  it  on  a  spool  (Fig. 
159)  fastened  against  the  wall. 
The  spool  should  have  a  Y-shaped 
groove,  and  pulling  the  thong 
tightly  into  the  groove  will  pre- 
vent the  whip  from  slipping  ;  it  is 
better  also  to  tie  the  point  round 
the  thone  and  stick  together,  as 
shown  in  the  Figure. 

If  the  proper  part  of  the  thong, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  159,  is  jammed 
in  the  groove,  the  weight  of  the 
stick  will  give,  and  will  keep, 
the  proper  backward  curve  to 
Fig.   159.  the  quill. 


CH.  XVII  WHIP    CASE  399 

In  default  of  a  spool,  a  short  loop  of  twine  should 
be  tied  round  the  stick  below  the  knot,  and  the  whip 
hung-  by  that  (Fig.  159)  ;  but  a  whip  should  never  be 
kept  leaning  against  a  wall  or  in  a  corner. 

A  jointed  whip,  the  pieces  of  the  stick  of  which 
screw  together,  should  be  carried  in  the  coach.  It 
is  fastened  upon  a  board,  as  shown  in  Fig.  160. 
Two  whips  may  be  put  upon  the  same  board. 


Fig.   160. 

For  carrying  whips  on  a  journey,  the  leather  case 
devised  by  me  for  my  own  use,  shown  in  Fig.  161, 
is  very  convenient.  It  is  6  ft.  5  in.  long,  4^  inches 
wide,  and  1  y2  inches  deep,  outside  dimensions  ; 
made  of  sole  leather,  with  a  bottom  of  hard  wood, 
i^  inch  thick,  on  the  inside  of  the  case,  to  make  it 
stiff.  Tapes,  fastened  to  the  bottom,  serve  to  tie 
in  the  whips,  six  of  which  can  be  carried.  The 
tapes  round  the  handles  must  be  tied  so  tight  that 
the  whips  cannot  slip  on  to  their  heads  when  the 
case  is  on  end,  or  else  the  bows  of  the  thongs  will 
be  bent  out  of  shape. 

A  whip  should  always  be  wiped,  or,  if  necessary, 
washed  thoroughly  after  use,  to  keep  the  varnish 
in  o-ood  order,  and  the  thono-  must  be  washed  with 
soft  soap  (crown  soap)  and  water,  and  sometimes 
rubbed  with  soap  alone  to  keep  it  soft.  Glycerine, 
vaseline,  or  a  mixture  of  lard  and  wax,  may  be  used, 


4-00 


WHIP    CASE 


CH.  XVII 


J 


iy*3 


but  to  keep  a  thong  in  condition, 
there  is  nothing  so  good  as  soap 
and  constant  use.  If  it  is  hard 
and  stiff  it  will  be  impossible  to 
catch  it  up  readily  or  to  keep  it 
on  the  stick.  Pipeclay  should 
never  be  used  on  a  thong  ;  it 
makes  it  stiff  and  rots  it.  There 
is  a  condition  into  which  a  thong 
gets  during  the  first  part  of  a 
drive  in  rain  or  fog  which  is  just 
right,  but  afterward  it  often  be- 
comes too  soft,  and  finally,  when 
dried,  it  is  stiff  and 
requires  soaping  or 
oreasinor. 

When    a   thonof   is 
worn,    it    is    best    to 
put    on     an    entirely 
new  one,  with  its  quill 
complete.        Thongs 
are     sold     by    whip- 
makers     put     up    as 
shown    in    Fig.     162, 
and  a  coachman  can 
learn,    without    much 
difficulty,  by  examining  a  finished 
whip,  to  braid  one  on  to  the  stick 
for  himself.     The  two  wide  strips 
of  leather,  which  hang  below  the 


Fig.    162. 


Fig.  161, 


CH.   XVII 


SPLICING    A   THONG 


4OI 


knot,  must  be  slit  so  as  to  give  four  strips,  round 
and  between  which  to  braid  the  black  thread. 

A  thong,  otherwise  good,  which  has  been  cut 
or  broken,  should  be  spliced  as  shown  in  Fig. 
163:— 

The  unbraided  strands  '  a'  and  '  b'  of  the  ends  of 
the  broken  thong,  being  tied  round  the  parts  of  the 


Fig.  163. 

thong,  as  at  A,  the  two  knots  are  pulled  tight  to- 
gether as  shown  at  B.  The  ends  are  then  cut  off 
and  the  knot  rolled  between  two  hard  surfaces. 

In  Fig.  163,  A,  the  end  'a'  is  left  in  a  position  to 
show  the  knots  under  it,  but  before  pulling  the 
knots  together,  it  must  be  pulled  *  tightly  into  the 
space  between  the  two  parts  of  the  thong,  as  at 
'b,'  and  it  then  covers  the  knots  and  is  jammed 
when  they  are  drawn  together,  as  shown  at  B. 


*  After  tucking  the  last  ends,  '  a'  and  '  b, '  into  the  space  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  thong,  it  is  convenient  to  seize  them  with  a  pair 
of  nippers  in  order  to  pull  them  as  tight  as  possible. 

26 


4-02 


SPLICING    A    THONG 


CH.  XVII 


Fig.  164. 


A  point  may  be  put  on  in  the  same  way,  but  it  is 
more  usually  done  as  in  Fig.  164  : — 

The  end  of  the  thong  being  unbraided,  one  of  the 
four  strands   is   tied   round   the   others,   and   pulled 

tight  to  keep  the  thong 
from  unplaiting,  and  the 
end  of  the  point  having 
been  unplaited  is  pushed 
close  against  the  end  of 
the  thong.  Each  strand  in  succession  is  laid  on 
top  of  a  strand  of  the  thong,  and  that  thong-strand 
having  been  turned  back,  the  point-strand  is  tied 
round  it  and  the  body  of  the  thong,  in  a  single  knot 
and  pulled  tight.  After  all  four  are  thus  tied,  the 
ends  are  cut  off  and  the  knot  rolled. 

Another  way  of  splicing  a  thong  is  to  make  with 
the  two  ends,  what  sailors  call  a  '  shroud  knot,' 
which  can  be  learned  from  any  book  on  sailors' 
knots.  In  this  knot  the  pieces  of  thong  are  un- 
plaited and  butted  against  each  other,  and  each 
strand  is  tied  with  a  single  knot  around  the  main 
part  of  the  thong  to  which  it  does  not  belong,  one 
half  of  all  these  knots  coming  above  the  joint  and 
one  half  below  it.  The  knots  are  all  pulled  tight 
and  the  ends  cut  off. 


The  whip  used  in   the  West,  and   elsewhere   than 
in  England,  has  a  straight  stick  of  an  elastic  wood, 


fro 


m 


3 


ft.  6  in.  to  4  feet  long.     The  thong  is  from 


8  to   10  feet  long,   rather  heavy,  and  has  usually  a 


CH.  XVII  DOUBLE-THONG  403 

belly  near  the  stick  end  ;  it  has  nothing  resembling 
a  quill,  but  in  its  place  there  is  a  loop.  * 

The  stick,  or  'stock,'  frequently  has  metal  bands 
at  intervals  for  its  whole  length,  but  it  has  no  handle 
proper,  the  lower  part  being  swelled  out  to  fit  the 
hand.  A  leather  loop  is  fastened  on  the  upper  end 
of  the  stick  by  wrapping,  and  to  it  the  thong  is  at- 
tached by  its  loop,  exactly  like  a  hunting-whip  or 
like  the  thong  of  the  long  whip,  or  chambriere,  of 
the  circus  ring-master. 

The  short  stick  is  convenient  in  narrow  forest- 
roads,  where  trees  are  close  to  the  track,  but  the 
whole  whip  is  stiff,  and  entirely  inferior  to  the 
English  whip.  It  is  difficult  to  strike  a  wheel 
horse  with  it  without  using  the  whole  length  of 
the  thong,  since  a  'double-thong'  cannot  be  made 
with  it. 

The  whips  used  in  Africa  with  teams  of  eight  or 
ten  animals  are  described  as  being  exceedingly  long, 
with  a  very  heavy  thong,  and  are  used  with  both 
hands,  one  man  driving-  and  another  flogging. 

Catching  a  Double-Thong. — Owing  to  the  length 
of  the  thong  of  a  four-horse  whip,  it  is  convenient  to 
carry  it  looped  on  the  stick,  and  for  that  purpose  it 
is  caught  up  in  what  is  called  a  double-thong  (Fig. 
165),  with  a  loop  of  the  upper  part  hanging  on 
the  end  of  the  stick  and  the  rest  of  the  thong 
coming  down  to  the  hand. 

A    learner  who   desires    to    master    the    trick    of 


404  DOUBLE-THONG  CH.   XVII 

the  double-thong  should,  if  possible,  get  some  one 
to  teach  him  ;  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  do  it  from 
a  description  ;  but  the  mechanism  of  it  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

If  the  whip  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  pointing 
slightly  upward  and  to  the  front,  and  moved  sharply 
to  the  right  and  a  little  upward,  with  the  thong  loose, 


Fig.  165. 

the  thong  will  turn  over  the  stick,  and 
slipping  along  it  over  the  top,  will  come 
to  rest  in  its  original  position,  having 
gone  over  the  stick  from  left  to  right. 

If,  however,  the  point  of  the  thong  is  held  against 
the  collar  of  the  stick  by  the  thumb,  and  the  opera- 
tion repeated,  the  point  not  being  free  to  run  out,  but 
being  suddenly  arrested,  the  bight  of  the  thong  will 
swing-  back  to  the  left  and  will  wind  itself  round 
the  stick  from  right  to  left,  the  upper  turns  being  in 
the  direction  of  a  right-handed  screw  and  the  lower 
turns  in  that  of  a  left-handed  screw  (Fig.  166,  A). 
Since  the  upper  part  of  the  thong  has  made  a  turn 
over  the  stick,  there  will  be  one  more  turn  in  the 
right-handed  part  than  in  that  near  the  hand.  If 
these  lower  turns  are  pulled  out,  leaving  only  the 
upper  turns,  the  thong  will  lie  as  shown  at  B, 
Fig.  166. 


CH.   XVII  DOUBLE-THONG  405 

In  practice,  to  catch  the  double-thong,  the  hand, 
after  being  moved  to  the  right,  somewhat  sharply 
but  steadily,    that   is,   without  a  jerk,  so  as  to  give 


a  swing-  to  the  bight  of  the  thong,  must 
be  turned  upward  a  little,  and  sud- 
denly stopped,  so  that  the  thong  will  come  on  the 
proper  point  of  the  stick,  the  upper  turn  being  just 
below  the  knot  ;  if  it  is  above  the  knot  it  may  strain 
the  quill. 

In  all  this  movement,  the  point  of  the  whip  should 
follow  a  line  like  this  s^-*****,  supposed  to  be  marked 
on  a  wall  in  front  of  the  operator,  but  it  is  the  turn 
of  the  wrist  at  the  end  of  the  movement  which 
catches  the  thong,  and  that  is  really  almost  the 
only  motion  made  by  one  who  is  very  expert. 

The  motion  of  the  stick  must  be  uniform,  until 
the  stop  at  the  end,  and  the  thong  must  be  left  to 
curl  round  the  stick  of  itself.  The  thong  should 
not  be  struck  at  by  the  stick,  as  is  frequently 
done. 

In  all  movements  of  the  whip,  whether  catching 
the  thong  or  in  hitting  a  horse,  it  must  be  held 
easily  in   the  hand,  and  the  wrist  must  be  free  and 


406  DOUBLE-THONG  CH.  XVII 

loose.  It  should  be  grasped  by  the  whole  hand 
with  all  the  fingers  underneath  ;  to  extend  the 
forefinger  up  the  stick,  results  in  an  objectionable 
stiffness. 

The  knack  of  catching  the  thong  dextrously,  or 
even  at  all,  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice,  and 
while  sometimes  a  lucky  man  will  hit  upon  it  very 
soon,  another  will  try  without  success  for  months, 
when  it  will  suddenly  come  to  him. 

After  the  double-thong  is  caught,  the  right  hand 
must  be  moved  to  such  a  position  that  the  bight  of 
the  thong  will  come  under  the  thumb  of  the  left 
hand  ;  the  lower  turns  can  then  be  pulled  out  by 
raising  the  right  hand  (for  the  left  hand,  with  the 
reins,  must  not  be  moved),  and  the  thong  having 
been  pulled  down  tight  from  the  lowest  of  the 
upper  turns,  must  be  held  against  the  stick  by  the 
thumb  (Fig.  166,  B).  Some  men  take  two  or  three 
turns  of  the  end  of  the  thong  round  the  whip  handle 
before  placing  the  thumb  upon  it,  but  it  is  better  to 
acquire  the  habit  of  keeping  it  straight,  since  the 
operation  just  described  takes  some  time,  and  it  is 
not  advisable  to  prolong  it. 

If  the  lower  turns  are  not  pulled  out,  the  thong 
will  come  unwound  too  readily. 

If  there  are  knots  close  to  the  end  of  the  wrap- 
ping of  the  quill,  the  thong,  if  it  is  soft  and  clinging, 
ought  to  remain  in  its  place,  but  it  is  likely  to  slip 
down,  and  this  can  be  prevented  by  putting  two  or 
three   more   turns   on  the  stick  by  a  motion  of  the 


CH.  XVII  DOUBLE-THONG  407 

wrist.  If  more  than  two  turns  are  put  on,  they  will 
show  in  the  loop,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  hit  a 
wheeler  hard,  they  will  hold  the  thong  more  securely 
together  (see  Fig.  167). 

As  long  as  the  consecutive  motions  of  catching 
the    double-thong    are    properly  performed,   it  does 


Fig.   167. 

not  make  much  difference  in  what  position 
the  whip  is  held  ;  that  is,  it  can  be  caught 
to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  directly  in  front 
or  overhead,  and  it  may  be  necessary  at 
times  to  catch  it  in  any  of  these  positions, 
depending  upon  whether  or  not  there  is  anything  in 
the  way,  but  in  general,  unless  there  is  some  reason 
to  the  contrary,  it  should  be  caught,  with  the  point 
high  and  in  front,  or  directly  over  the  horses,  for 
the  reason  that  this  is  the  direction  in  which  the 
coachman's  eyes  should  be  always  kept,  and  if  he 
is  tempted  to  look  at  his  whip  he  will  still  be 
looking  in  the  ri^ht  direction. 

What  is  sometimes  called  the  'whitewash  act,' 
resorted  to  by  coachmen  who  have  not  mastered 
the  double-thong,  consists  in  holding  the  whip  ver- 
tically downward  on  the  right  side  of  the  coach, 
and  stirring  it  round  and  round  until  the  proper 
number  of  turns  are  obtained  ;  it  is  effective  but 
not  elegant. 


408  USE    OF    THE    WHIP  CH.  XVII 

When  the  wind  is  strong  from  the  near  side  of  the 
coach,  or  the  thono-  not  in  the  best  condition,  the 
turns  may  slip  down  the  stick  ;  they  may  be  pushed 
back  to  their  places  by  drawing  the  stick  under  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  which  must  not  be  moved  ; 
but  it  is  better  to  catch  the  thong  up  afresh  in  the 
regular  way. 

Use  of  the  Whip. — To  hit  a  near  wheeler,  the 
hand  must  be  somewhat  advanced,  and  the  stroke 
delivered  by  turning  the  thumb  down  and  the  outside 
of  the  hand  up,  striking  the  horse  on  the  shoulder, 
or  as  far  forward  as  possible.  For  an  off  wheeler 
the  hand  is  carried  forward  to  the  right  and  down, 
underhanded,  the  back  of  the  hand  going  down  and 
the  fingers  up.  The  horse  should  be  hit  on  the 
shoulders,  and  with  the  loop  of  the  thong  parallel 
to  the.  line  of  the  pole-chains,  that  is,  as  extended 
as  possible,  when  the  thong  will  be  less  likely  to 
catch  on  the  point  of  the  trace,  or  on  the  point  of 
the  belly-band  chape.  Both  of  these  strokes  are 
made  with  the  loop  of  the  thong. 

An  off  leader  is  easy  to  reach :  the  thong  is 
untwisted  by  swinging  the  whip  on  the  right-hand 
side  and  letting  go  the  point  just  as  the  last  turn 
comes  off.  The  unwound  thong  is  then  directed, 
with  the  hand  in  the  same  position  as  for  the  off 
wheeler,  toward  the  hind  legs  of  the  horse  below 
his  trace.  It  takes  an  extremely  long  thong  to  hit 
a  leader  in  front  of  his    pad,  and    he    should    not 


CH.   XVII  HITTING    A    LEADER  409 

be  hit  above  his  trace,  which  may  make  him  kick  ; 
moreover,  if  the  thong  is  muddy,  it  leaves  a  mark. 

There  are  three  ways  of  hitting  a  near  leader  : 
The  usual  one  is  to  swing  the  thong  over  the  top  of 
the  coach  (being  sure  that  it  is  swung  high  enough 
to  avoid  striking  any  one  on  the  back  seat),  and 
then  throwing-  it  out  alongside  of  the  near  wheeler 
so  as  to  touch  the  leader  from  the  outside.  An- 
other way  is  to  pass  the  whip,  unwound,  of  course, 
to  the  left  side  of  the  coach,  and  to  describe  a 
vertical  circle  with  the  thong,  throwing  it  forward  as 
before,  but  not  permitting  any  part  of  the  thong  to 
go  back  behind  the  driving-seat.  This  resembles 
what  Scotch  fishermen  call  a  '  Spey-cast'  with  the 
rod  ;  used  where  trees  are  behind  the  angler  ;  it  is 
difficult,  and  requires  long  practice.  The  neatest 
way  is  to  hit  the  horse  from  the  off  side,  under  the 
bars,  the  point  of  the  thong  passing  in  front  of 
the  wheelers  and  behind  the  off  leader,  catching 
the  near  leader  on  his  off  hind  leg.  If  the  stroke 
is  delivered  as  if  aimed  at  the  kidney-link  of  the  off 
wheeler  it  will  be  successful.  This  is  also  a  difficult 
stroke,  but  so  neat  that  it  is  worth  acquiring,  and 
it  will  be  hardly  noticed  by  persons  on  the  coach, 
whereas,  owing  to  their  necessary  amplitude,  the 
other  two  motions  are  conspicuous. 

Some  good  coachmen  recommend,  and  practise, 
throwing  the  thong  on  the  leaders'  backs  between 
the  heads  of  the  wheelers  ;  possibly  in  certain  con- 
fined   places  it  may  be  necessary,   but  it   is  a  bad 


4IO  'HOLD   AND    HIT'  CH.   XVII 

stroke  ;  one  is  almost  certain  to  touch  a  wheeler  in 
bringing  the  thong  back,  or  to  get  the  point  caught 
in  the  harness  or  on  the  pole-head. 

In  touching  any  horse,  and  especially  a  leader, 
the  maxim  'hold  and  hit'  must  be  remembered, 
which  means  that  the  coachman  must  have  a  hold 
on  the  horse's  mouth,  because  if  the  horse  is  hit 
while  his  rein  is  loose,  he  will  rush  forward  before 
he  can  be  properly  restrained.  No  crack  or  whistle 
must  be  made  with  the  whip  ;  only  that  horse  alone 
which  is  hit  should  know  anything  about  it. 

After  a  stroke  the  thong  must  be  brought  back  by 
lifting  the  point  of  the  stick,  so  that  the  thong  will 
fall  on  the  inside  of  the  right  arm,  whence  it  can  be 
allowed  to  slip  down  to  the  hand.  There  will  be 
several  feet  of  thong-  hanoqno-  down  behind  the 
hand,  and  this  must  be  pulled  through  the  right 
hand  by  the  left  thumb,  until  only  a  few  inches 
remain  under  the  right  thumb,  when  a  double-thong 
can  be  caught. 

In  brincrino-  the  thono-  back,  it  must  not  touch 
any  horse,  or  trail  on  the  ground  so  as  to  get 
muddy. 

In  striking  an  off  wheeler,  the  loop  of  the  double- 
thong  may  catch  either  in  the  point  of  the  trace  or 
in  the  point-strap  which  is  buckled  into  the  false 
belly-band,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  get  it  out  ;  it 
may  sometimes  be  released  by  letting  the  point  of 
the  thong  go  entirely  off  of  the  stick,  and  then 
pulling  it  through  single. 


CH.   XVII  USE    OF    THE    WHIP  4 1  I 

After  striking-  a  leader,  the  point  may  catch  be- 
tween the  hook  and  the  spring  of  the  lead-bar,  and 
it  will  be  generally  necessary  for  one  of  the  servants 
to  get  down  and  release  it ;  but  a  series  of  gentle 
jerks,  or  pulling  back  the  leaders,  so  as  to  slacken 
the  lead-trace,  will  sometimes  bring  it  out.  To 
order  a  servant  to  get  down  for  the  purpose  of 
clearing  the  thong,  the  coachman  says,  sharply, 
'near  side'  or  'off  side,'  as  the  case  may  be.  If 
the  point  is  wet,  especially  if  it  is  of  whipcord,  it 
will  often  lap  round  the  hook  of  the  lead-bar  or 
some  part  of  the  bar  ;  which  is  called  :  '  getting  a 
bite  ;'  a  little  jerking  and  coaxing  will  usually  free 
it.  Another  expression  used  for  having  the  thong 
caught  is  :   'getting  hung  up.' 

Should  the  loop  of  the  thong  catch  on  a  tree,  the 
whip  must  be  quickly  let  go  entirely,  and  picked  up 
afterward  ;  an  attempt  to  pull  it  away  may  not  only 
break  it,  but  possibly  inflict  a  blow  upon  the  occu- 
pant of  the  box-seat.  The  balls  or  ornaments  on 
gateposts  may  catch  the  whip  unless  it  is  held  high. 

In  approaching  a  spot  where  the  horses  may  be 
troublesome,  such  as  under  a  railroad  bridge,  the 
whip  should  be  unwound,  and  only  the  point  of  the 
thong  held  in  the  hand,  ready  for  instant  application 
to  a  leader.  In  meeting  a  steam-roller,  for  instance, 
the  leaders  are  very  apt  to  shy,  and  a  quick  touch 
to  the  off  side  of  the  off  leader  will  keep  the  leaders 
in  the  road. 

There  is  an   unwritten  rule  of  the  Reunion   Road 


412  USE    OF    THE    WHIP  CH.  XVII 

Club,  of  Paris,  that  any  member  neglecting  this  pre- 
caution, of  unwinding  his  whip,  shall  pay  a  fine  of 
one  franc  to  every  other  member  who  may  happen 
to  be  on  the  coach. 

The  whip  should  never  remain  in  the  socket 
(many  coaches  have  no  whip-socket,  which  is  a  good 
plan)  ;  it  should  always  be  in  the  hand  ready  for 
use,  since  the  wheelers  may  need  to  be  turned  by  it 
more  quickly  than  they  can  be  turned  by  the  reins  ; 
for  a  sharp  forward  movement  of  a  wheeler,  owing 
to  his  pulling  on  the  end  of  the  splinter-bar,  will 
promptly  take  his  side  of  the  coach  round. 

In  galloping,  it  is  usually  better  to  guide  with  the 
whip  than  by  the  reins,  because  pulling  a  horse  to 
one  side  will  take  him  out  of  his  even  stride  or 
cause  him  to  change  his  leading  leg. 

It  is  in  the  management  of  the  whip  that  an 
amateur  coachman  is  of  necessity  weakest,  private 
teams  generally  requiring  more  to  be  restrained 
than  to  be  urged,  so  that  if  he  does  not  keep  his 
right  hand  quiet,  his  horses  may  'get  too  much 
for  him  ;'  consequently,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  spend 
some  spare  time  on  foot,  or  on  a  coach-box,  prac- 
tising upon  imaginary  animals. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  whip,  old  coaching 
chronicles  tell  of  the  'short  tommy,'  or  'docker,' 
and  the  '  apprentice  :'  the  former  appears  to  have 
been  a  whip  with  a  short  stick  and  a  short  thong, 
with  which,  on  a  bad  hill,  the  coachman  of  a  ni^ht- 
coach,    after  putting   his  whip  under  his  right  leg, 


CH.  XVII  USE    OF    THE    WHIP  413 

would  '  lay  into'  his  wheelers,  while  the  guard, 
running  alongside,  persuaded  the  leaders  with  a 
similar  weapon.  A  plate  by  Sturgess  in  Harris's 
Old  Coaching  Days,  p.  j8,  illustrates  the  operation. 
The  '  apprentice'  was  more  like  a  cat-o'-nine-tails. 

On  a  coach  which  has  no  whip-socket,  when  it  is 
necessary  for  any  temporary  purpose  to  get  the 
whip  out  of  the  hand,  the  handle  is  put  under  the 
right  leg,  the  stick  projecting  horizontally  to  the  off 
side,  an  eye  being  kept  on  it,  that  it  does  not  catch 
in  a  tree. 

Reynardson  tells  a  story,  also  illustrated  by 
Alken,  in  Down  the  Road,  p.  134,  of  'stamping 
the  foot-board,'  in  which  an  old  coachman,  beine 
in  the  habit  of  rattling  his  feet  on  the  foot-board 
whenever  he  used  the  '  short  tommy,'  got  his  horses 
so  used  to  the  signal  that  as  soon  as  they  heard  the 
noise  they  jumped  into  their  collars,  without  it  being 
necessary  to  apply  the  instrument. 

The  catching  up  of  the  whip  in  a  double-thong 
seems  to  date  from  the  early  part  of  this  century, 
but  not  to  have  become  general  until  much  later. 
The  pictures  of  the  last  century  do  not  show  it 
(see  Plate  VI.).  In  Alken's  well-known  plate  Three 
blind  'uns  and  a  bolter,  published  in  1833,  and  in  a 
plate  by  J.  L.  A.,  published  by  Watson  in  1824,  the 
whip  is  not  caught  up.  In  a  picture  of  a  coach-and- 
six,  by  Cordery,  in  1803  (Coachmakers'  Company, 
London),  the  double-thong  is  shown.  The  books 
are  silent  on  the  subject. 


414  THE    SALUTE  CH.  XVII 

The  Salute. —  When  public-coaches  meet,  the 
coachmen  salute  each  other  with  the  whip.  In 
early  days,  it  was  customary  to  move  the  whip-hand 
to  the  right,  keeping  it  low,  as  shown  at  A,  Plate 
XXXI.  ;  later,  it  became  the  fashion  to  raise  the  hand 
to  the  level  of  the  face,  as  at  B  ;  and  finally,  about 
fifteen  years  ago,  the  manner  shown  at  C,  which 
resembles  a  soldier's  'present  sabre,'  was  adopted. 
Corbett  (p.  248)  calls  the  oldest  fashion  :  '  a  neat 
meeting,'  and  the  second  one  :   'a  muffish  meeting-.' 

A  person  driving  a  private  coach  should  always 
make  a  salute  with  the  whip  to  a  public-coach,  when 
meeting  one.  If  there  are  ladies  with  whom  he  is 
acquainted,  on  a  coach,  he  should  raise  his  hat, 
passing  his  whip  into  his  left  hand. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  a  man  when 
driving  should  always  take  oft  his  hat  to  a  lady  ;  it 
is  in  bad  taste  merely  to  raise  his  whip  in  place  of 
so  doing.  If  he  has  not  hands  enough  to  spare  one 
for  his  hat,  he  should  continue  to  practise  driving, 
until  he  can  find  one. 

Note  to  page  391. — Since  the  issue  of  the  early  copies  of  this 
edition,  I  have  been  told  that  the  so-called  rabbit-bitten  hollies  are 
not  really  bitten  by  rabbits,  but  that  the  irregularities  are  the  result 
of  injuries  to  the  bark  produced  artificially  by  cutting. 

After  correspondence  with  several  persons  who  ought  to  be  familiar 
with  the  subject,  I  understand  that  rabbits  and  sometimes  rats,  do 
make  the  marks,  but  that  they  are  also  made  with  the  knife  on  the 
growing  shoot,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  the  well-known  sticks. 
In  both  cases  the  wounds  of  the  bark  are  healed  by  growth  and  their 
edges  rounded  into  the  forms  which  are  familiar  to  us. 


m 


> 


lie-coaches  meet,    the 
i    oth  te    whip, 

earj  the  whip-hand 

Plate 
a  me  t 

ft  han 

,en 
it 

iie 
>uld  continue  to  . 


aise  the  hand 

out 

iich 

I  led. 


i 


H 
I 
m 

to 

> 

r~ 
c 
H 
m 


> 

-1 
m 

x 
x 

X 


ch.  xviii  4T5 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

THE    MEN:    THEIR    DUTIES    AND    DRESS 

On  a  private  coach  there  should  be  two  servants  : 
a  first  and  second  groom,  or  coachman  and  groom. 
The  head  man  sits  on  the  off  side  in  the  rumble,  the 
other  man  on  the  near  side.  When  the  owner  is  not 
driving,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  coachman  brings 
the  coach  from  the  stable  to  the  door,  the  second 
man  keeps  his  place  in  the  rumble  on  the  near  side. 
After  coming  to  the  door,  the  second  man  goes 
immediately  to  the  heads  of  the  leaders  and  stands 
in  front  of  them  facing  the  coach,  taking  hold  of  their 
heads  if  necessary,  and  straightening  them  forward  ; 
the  leaders,  on  stopping,  are  very  apt  to  hang  back 
and  to  be  too  near  the  end  of  the  pole.  Their 
traces  should  be  nearly  tight,  and  while  they  stand, 
the  man  at  their  heads  should  see  that  they  are  al- 
ways in  their  proper  places.  The  coachman  quietly 
puts  on  the  brake,  gets  down  immediately,  with  the 
reins  and  whip  in  his  right  hand,  draws  the  reins 
through  the  point-strap  above  the  tug-buckle  (in 
the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  168),  lays  the  whip  across 
the  backs  of  the  wheelers,  and  then  stands  at  the 
wheelers'  heads  on  the  off  side. 

Should  there  be  only  men  going  on   the   coach, 
and  the  ladder  is   not  required,  the   man  who  is  at 


416 


DUTIES    OF    THE    MEN 


CH.  XVIII 


Fig,   168. 


the  wheelers'  heads  remains  at  his  place  ;  if  the 
ladder  is  to  be  used,  it  is  his  duty  to  take  it  down 
and  put  it  in  position,  and  also  to  get  out  any  rugs, 

aprons,  &c,  that  may  be 
required.  As  soon  as  he 
has  finished  these  duties  he 
returns  to  his  station  on  the 
off  side. 

Meanwhile,  the  second 
man,  at  the  heads  of  the 
leaders,  must  be  looking 
toward  the  coach,  and  at  a 
nod  from  the  person  driving 
he  moves  to  his  right,  that 
is,  to  the  near  side,  and  takes  three  or  four  steps 
toward  the  coach  ;  at  the  same  time  the  head  man 
takes  a  step  forward,  which  brings  him  opposite  to 
the  second  man. 

As  the  coach  passes  them,  they  take  hold  of  the 
irons  supporting  the  rumble,  and  putting  up  the 
inside  foot  first,  mount  to  the  back  seat  as  nearly 
as  possible  simultaneously. 

On  stopping,  they  immediately  descend,  and  take 
their  places,  as  before,  at  the  horses'  heads  ;  but  if 
a  lady  is  to  get  down,  the  head  man  brings  the 
ladder. 

Both  men  should  be  on  the  alert  to  get  down 
in  case  of  an  accident  or  if  their  services  are  really 
required,  but  they  should  not  jump  down  and  run 
to  the  horses  at  every  temporary  block  in  the  street, 


CH.   XVIII  DUTIES    OF    THE    MEN  417 

as  if  the  coachman  were  not  competent  to  manage 
his  horses. 

All  the  men  about  a  four-in-hand  establishment 
should  be  carefully  instructed  that,  should  a  team 
suddenly  start,  the  proper  way  to  stop  it  is  by 
seizing  the  heads  of  the  wheel  horses;  there  is 
always  an  impulse  on  the  part  of  bystanders  to 
rush  to  the  heads  of  the  leaders  ;  if  they  succeed 
in  stopping  them,  the  point  of  the  pole  runs  into 
the  leaders'  rumps,  resulting  in  confusion  worse 
confounded.  It  is  the  wheelers  alone  that  can 
hold  the  coach  ;  if  they  are  stopped,  the  leaders 
can  do  but  little.  Therefore,  the  proper  thing  is 
to  reach  the  wheelers  first,  and  bring  them  under 
control. 

When  wheelers  are  troublesome,  the  man  at  their 
heads  can  hold  them  by  taking  all  four  of  their 
reins  in  his  hand,  about  two  feet  from  the  bits,  and 
every  man  should  be  shown  how  he  can  hold  all 
four  horses  at  once,  by  taking  in  his  hand,  or  in  both 
hands,  the  leaders'  reins  in  addition, — a  much  safer 
way  than  merely  standing  at  the  leaders'  heads 
when  there  is  no  one  to  look  after  the  wheelers. 

In  large  establishments,  the  head  coachman  fre- 
quently brings  the  coach  to  the  door,  but  goes  no 
further,  in  which  case,  the  two  grooms  come  round 
in  the  rumble,  and  take  their  stations  as  above 
described.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  head 
coachman  is  not  in  livery.  He  places  the  ladder 
and  discharges  the  duties   described  above    as   be- 

^7 


4i8 


DRESS    OF    THE    MEN 


CH.   XVIII 


longing  to  the  head  man,  and  the  principal  groom 
remains  at  the  wheelers'  heads. 

When,  as  at  races  and  picnics,  a  stable-man  out 
of  livery  is  taken  inside  the  coach  to  help  with 
the  horses,  he  does  not  do  any  of  the  duties  just 
described,  but  assists  immediately  in  taking  out 
the  horses,  holding  them,  running  the  coach  into 
position,  etc. 


Dress. — The  men  should  be  dressed  in  breeches 
and  boots,  with  sinole-breasted  coats  not  too  long  in 
the  skirt,  waistcoats  of  the  striped  material  especially 
made  for  the  purpose,  known  as  'Valencia,'  or  of 
any  coloured  material  that  is  desired.  The  waist- 
coats should  have  sleeves,  so  that  the  men  will  look 
neat  if  their  coats  are  taken  off  to  do  any  work  ;  the 
waistcoats  should  be  high  enough  to  show  an  edge 
in  the  opening  of  the  coat  when  this  is  buttoned. 

The  scarf  should  be  white  ;  there  is  a  regular 
form  of  coachman's  scarf,  sometimes  combined  with 
a  collar,  which  is  sold  by  dealers  (Fig. 
169).  The  scarf  and  collar  must  be 
always  scrupulously  clean,  and  it  looks 
well  for  the  two  men  to  wear  small  horse- 
shoe scarf-pins  exactly  alike. 

The  hio-h  silk  hat  should  be  in  the  mean 
of  the  fashion,  and  not  exaggerated, 
but  always  of  the  best  quality  and  never  shabby. 
The  oil-cloth  covers,  sometimes  provided  for  rainy 
weather,  are  not  satisfactory  :  they  rub  the  hat  when 


Fig.  169. 


CH.  XVIII  DRESS    OF    THE    MEN  419 

they  are  being  put  on,  and  are  heavy.  A  good  silk 
hat  is  not  much  hurt  by  rain,  if,  after  coming  home, 
it  is  wet  all  over  and  wiped  with  a  wet  cloth.  After 
it  is  quite  dry,  it  should  be  brushed  with  a  hard 
brush,  and  then  with  a  soft  one  or  a  velvet  pad  ; 
some  coachmen  keep  a  hatter's  iron  in  the  harness- 
room  to  improve  it  still  further. 

Cockades  are  worn  in  the  men's  hats  only  when 
the  owner  of  the  coach  is,  or  has  been,  an  Officer 
of  the  Army  or  Navy,  or  in  the  Diplomatic  Service. 
It  is  usually  considered  that  the  cockade  with  a  fan 
belongs  to  military  officers,  and  the  cockade  with 
only  the  oval  body,  to  Civil  Servants  of  the  Gov- 
ernment.* 

Tan-coloured  dog-skin  gloves  complete  the  cos- 
tume ;  the  gloves  should  not  be  white. 

A  coachman's  coat  has  flaps  on  the  hips  where 
pockets  would  be  ;  a  groom's  coat  has  not.  The 
buttons  are  silver  or  gilt,  corresponding  to  the 
mountings  of  the  harness,  and  should  have,  raised 
on  them,  a  monogram  or  crest  ;  a  perfectly  plain 
metal  button  suggests  a  livery  stable.     The  tails  of 


*  The  cockade  probably  originated  with  the  button  used  to  fasten 
up  the  brim  of  the  hat,  and  seems  to  have  been  confined  at  first  to 
the  military  servants  of  Army  officers  ;  it  has,  for  a  long  time,  been 
a  badge  of  party,  as  the  white,  the  red,  and  the  tricolour  cockades  of 
French  history  and  the  black  or  white  cockades  of  the  Houses  of 
Hanover  or  Stuart.  The  cockades  of  Embassy  and  Legation  ser- 
vants have  different  colours  :  for  Austria  they  are  black  and  yellow, 
for  Belgium,  black,  yellow,  and  red,  etc. 


420  DRESS    OF    THE    MEN  CH.   XVIII 

a  livery  coat,  where  they  lap  over,  should  be  sewed 
together  for  a  distance  of  about  five  inches  below 
the  buttons,  to  prevent  them  from  spreading  apart 
when  the  man  is  seated.  The  overcoat  is  double- 
breasted,  with  two  rows  of  buttons,  and  should  be 
long, — half-way  between  the  knee  and  the  ankle. 
It  is  usually  of  the  same  colour  as  the  other  coat, 
but  it  is  perfectly  proper  to  have  it  of  drab  cloth, 
whatever  the  other  coat  may  be. 

The  men  should  always  have  india-rubber  coats, 
preferably  black  and  with  a  cloth  finish,  not  with  a 
rubber  surface,  which  looks  common. 

For  ordinary  carriage  purposes,  the  men  have 
trousers  of  the  same  colour  as  the  coats,  but  trousers 
should  not  be  worn  on  a  coach,  with  livery  coats  ; 
always  breeches  and  boots. 

In  a  well  mounted  establishment  the  men  should 
have,  in  addition  to  their  liveries,  morning  suits, 
consisting-  of  a  sack  coat,  waistcoat,  and  trousers,  of 
grey  or  light  brown  material,  that  known  to  tailors 
as  '  Chipping  Norton  tweed,'  being  the  most  suitable. 

These  clothes  are  worn  when  the  coach  is  taken 
out  in  the  morning,  or  on  a  journey,  or  for  trying  a 
team.  Instead  of  ordinary  trousers,  breeches  and 
gaiters,  all  of  the  same  stuff,  may  be  worn,  but 
trousers  are  the  best  on  a  journey,  not  being  so  con- 
spicuous when  the  men  are  walking  about  a  town. 

The  hats  worn  with  these  suits  are  Derby  or 
pot-hats,  either  of  the  colour  of  the  cloth,  or  black, 
but  both  of  exactly  the  same  shape.     The  white  tie 


CH.  XVIII  DRESS    OF    THE    MEN  42  I 

and  collar  are  of  course  necessary.  The  coat 
belonging  to  this  suit  may  be  put  on  after  ar- 
riving at  a  race-course  or  a  horse-show,  in  place 
of  the  livery  coat,  and  it  looks  very  '  smart'  on 
such  occasions  over  the  breeches  and  boots.  The 
pot-hat  must  be  worn  with  it,  having  been  taken 
out  in  the  coach. 

The  colour  of  the  boot-tops  is  a  matter  of  taste, 
and  varies  with  fashion  from  time  to  time,  but  the 
regular  old  dark  brown  is  much  the  best,  the  pink 
and  the  white  having  a  less  sporting  look. 

The  breeches,  to  look  well,  must  be  made  by  the 
best  maker  and  carefully  put  on,  the  buttons  not  too 
much  to  one  side,  but  half-way  round  between  the 
front  and  the  side.  They  should  not  be  too  tight, 
but  must  not  be  at  all  baggy  above  the  knee,  as 
hunting-breeches  are  now  made.  In  fact,  livery- 
breeches  and  huntino-breeches  are  altogether  dif- 
ferent  articles.  Breeches  made  of  leather  are 
handsome  and  last  for  a  long  time,  but  they  are 
expensive,  require  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  should 
be  in  duplicate,  because  when  they  get  wet  it  is 
difficult  to  dry  them  in  time  for  next  day's  use. 
The  pipeclay  with  which  they  are  cleaned,  rubs  off 
on  the  cushions  and  is  a  little  untidy. 

Breeches  are  perhaps  better  made  of  moleskin, 
an  elastic  cassimere,  which  comes  for  the  purpose. 
This  may  be  pure  white,  but  it  usually  has  a  slight 
grey  tinge,  which  is  quite  as  pleasing  as  a  dazzling 
white.     They  are  kept  clean  by  washing,  and  must 


42  2  DRESS    OF    THE    OWNER  CH.   XVIII 

be  dried  on  a  breeches-stretcher,  or  they  will  soon 
get  out  of  shape.  A  careful  man  will  have  an 
apron  to  keep  his  breeches  clean,  when  doing  any 
work  in  the  stable  after  he  is  dressed. 

It  is  usual  in  Europe,  for  coachmen  and  grooms 
to  have  their  own  boots  and  breeches,  which  they 
take  with  them  in  changing  a  place.  It  is  a  custom 
that  might  be  introduced  to  advantage  in  America, 
inasmuch  as  these  articles  are  expensive  items  if 
they  have  to  be  furnished  frequently  for  new  men. 
Of  course,  wages  have  to  be  adjusted  to  compen- 
sate the  man  for  providing  this  part  of  his  dress. 

The  owner's  dress  for  coaching  hardly  demands 
remark  ;  it  is  the  same  that  he  would  wear  for  any 
driving.  For  the  coat,  a  dark  grey  is  suitable,  and 
shows  dust  less  than  black.  The  tails  should  be 
sewed  together  as  described  for  the  men's  coats. 
A  high  hat  should  be  worn  in  the  afternoon,  but  a 
pot-hat  is  proper  in  the  morning  (unless  the  occasion 
is  a  formal  one),  and  is  also  proper  in  the  country 
at  any  time  of  day,  or  on  any  kind  of  coaching 
trip. 

In  the  early  days  of  The  Coaching  Club,  in  New 
York,  the  members  wore  white  hats  at  the  Meets  ; 
but  later  this  was  changed,  and  now  black  hats  are 
worn.  Ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  it  was  considered 
the  proper  thing  for  a  lady,  on  a  coach,  to  wear  a 
bonnet,  but  now  the  rule  is  relaxed  and  hats  are  in 
the  majority. 

Tan-coloured   gloves    are    the    proper    thing    for 


CH.  XVIII  GLOVES  423 

driving  ;  light  or  white  gloves  never.  If  a  coach- 
man  wishes  to  be  happy,  he  will  have  large  gloves, 
easy  about  the  wrist,  and  with  very  long  fingers.  If 
they  are  short,  the  bending  of  the  hand  will  pull  the 
glove  against  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  which  they 
will  tire  and  make  perfectly  numb  in  cold  weather. 
A  glove  is  sometimes  left  unbuttoned  at  the  wrist, 
but  this  permits  the  glove  to  slip  about  and  to 
catch  on  the  cuff  of  the  coat ;  it  is  much  better  to 
have  it  large  at  the  wrist,  or  the  buttons  so  moved 
as  to  make  it  easy.  Some  men  like  a  thin  glove, 
but  the  majority  of  coachmen  find  a  thick,  soft 
glove  the  most  comfortable,  and  for  hard  work, 
I  like  a  soft  lined  glove.  It  is  somewhat  a  question 
of  thin  or  fat  hands. 

A  pair  of  cotton,  or  thin  woollen  gloves  should 
always  be  carried  either  in  the  coach  or  in  the 
pocket  of  the  waterproof  cape,  to  put  on  over 
the  other  gloves  when  it  rains  ;  when  wet,  leather 
gloves  are  slippery  and  most  uncomfortable. 

After  gloves  have  been  wet,  a  thorough  rubbing 
with  crown  soap  well  worked  in  will  make  them  all 
right  again. 

For  cold  weather  there  is  nothing  better  than  the 
ordinary  drab  cloth  box-coat,  easy,  but  not  too 
large,  double-breasted,  buttoning  up  close  in  the 
neck.  It  may  have  covered  buttons  to  match  the 
cloth,  or  pearl  buttons,  plain  and  not  too  large. 

A  cape,  either  of  drab  cloth  or  of  some  water- 
proof material,   large  enough  to  lie  outside  of  the 


424 


DRIVING    CAPE 


CH.   XVIII 


top  of  the  apron  and  over  the  back  of  the  driving 
cushion,  so  as  to  shed  the  rain  off  outside,  is  con- 
venient for  showery  weather.  Any  shape  of  water- 
proof thing  which  leads  the  rain  down  inside  of  the 
apron  and  into  the  lap  is  maddening. 

A  cape  with  sleeves  (Fig.  1 70)  I  have  found 
useful.  It  can  be  thrown  over  the  shoulders  like 
a  cape,  while  driving,  and  the  arms,  one  at  a  time, 

thrust  into  the  sleeves  afterward  ; 
the  sleeve  is  short  and  very  large 
at  its  upper  end,  so  that  the  hand 
readily  slips  into  it,  but  it  fits 
tight  around  the  wrist.  To  put 
on,  while  driving,  an  ordinary 
coat  with  long  sleeves,  is  a  dan- 
gerous experiment ;  for  some 
moments  the  coachman  is  per- 
fectly helpless. 

For  public  coaching  a  some- 
what more  '  down-the-road'  style 
of  dress  may  be  adopted.  It  is  proper  for  the 
coachman  to  wear  a  white  hat,  which  may  be  rather 
low  in  the  crown  and  wide  in  the  brim,  but  not 
extravagantly  so. 

Russet-leather  shoes  with  white  linen  spats  are 
not  out  of  place  in  summer ;  blackened  leather 
shoes,  which  soil  the  apron,  are  objectionable. 

A  white  hunting-  scarf  and  collar,  with  some  kind 
of  a  coaching  pin,  is  the  best  neckgear. 

A   dark-grey  coat   is   good  ;    as   is  also,    for  cold 


Fig.  170. 


CH.   XVIII  DRESS    OF    THE    WHIP    CLUB  425 

weather,  a  drab  box-coat  with  large  pearl,  or  ivory 
buttons,  on  which  a  coaching  device  is  engraved. 

In  wet  weather,  an  apron  which  can  be  buckled 
round  the  waist,  reaching  to  the  ankles  and  meet- 
ing behind,  is  a  good  protection,  and  if  the  coat  or 
cape  is  put  on  over  it,  it  is  hardly  possible  for  the 
rain  to  penetrate  ;  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  this 
garb,  the  coachman,  when  on  the  ground,  looks 
somewhat  like  an  old  woman. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  century  in  England, 
when  '  the  road'  was  the  fashion,  not  only  the  pro- 
fessional coachmen  but  the  amateurs  who  imitated 
them,  affected  many  eccentricities  of  dress.  Coats 
of  many  capes,  very  low  broad-brimmed  hats,  and 
voluminous  wrappings  about  the  neck  were  the 
rage,  and  Lord  William  Lennox  {Coaching,  p. 
202)  gives  the  following  description  of  the  dress 
of  a  member  of  '  The  Whip  Club'  :  '  A  light  drab- 
4  coloured  cloth  coat,  made  full,  single-breasted,  with 
'  three  tiers  of  pockets,  the  skirts  reaching  to  the 
1  ankles,  a  mother-o'-pearl  button  of  the  size  of  a 
4  crown-piece  ;  waiscoat  blue  and  yellow  stripe,  each 
'  stripe  an  inch  in  depth  ;  smallclothes,  corded  silk 
4  plush,  made  to  button  over  the  calf  of  the  leg,  with 
'  sixteen  strings,  and  rosettes  to  each  knee  ;  the 
'  boots  very  short,  and  finished  with  very  broad 
'  straps,  which  hung  over  the  tops  and  down  to  the 
4  ankle  ;  a  hat  three  inches  and  a  half  deep  in  the 
4  crown  only,  and  the  same  depth  in  the  brim.  Each 
4  wore  a  large  bouquet  of    flowers    at    the    breast, 


426  CLUB    UNIFORMS  CH.  XVIII 

'  resembling    the    coachmen    of    the    nobility    on    a 
'  Drawing-room  or  Levee  day.' 

In  the  present  day  the  '  Driving'  and  '  Coaching 
Clubs'  of  London,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
elsewhere  have  a  distinctive  uniform  for  Meets, 
but  it  is  simple,  consisting  of  a  plain  dark  coat  of 
green,  brown,  or  blue,  with  gilt  buttons  with  the 
club  device,  a  uniform  waistcoat,  and  plain  trousers 
of  any  colour.  Usually  a  dress-coat  of  the  same 
cloth,  for  evening  wear,  is  prescribed. 


CH.  XIX  427 


CHAPTER   XIX 

PUBLIC    COACHING 

Driving  a  coach  on  the  road  between  fixed  points, 
according  to  a  regular  time-table,  with  changes  of 
horses,  in  imitation  of  old-fashioned  business  coach- 
ing, has  a  great  fascination  for  the  coaching  man, 
and  with  good  reason.  It  bears  much  the  same  re- 
lation to  taking  an  afternoon  drive  at  one's  leisure, 
that  playing  an  instrument  in  an  orchestra  bears  to 
practising  solos  at  home.  In  the  latter  case  mis- 
takes are  easily  corrected,  movements  may  be  re- 
peated ;  if  one  passage  is  not  interesting  another 
can  be  selected  ;  but  in  an  orchestra,  when  once 
started,  the  performer  must  go  on,  time  must  be 
kept,  everything  must  be  according  to  rule,  with  no 
chance  to  correct  omissions  or  mistakes. 

In  fact,  a  coachman  never  detects  how  little  he 
knows  until  he  undertakes  to  drive  a  fast  public- 
coach,  or  a  musician  until  he  tries  his  hand  in  con- 
certed pieces.  In  an  afternoon  drive  in  the  park, 
if  the  reins  are  not  quite  right,  if  one  horse  pulls, 
if  any  one  of  many  inaccuracies  troubles  the  coach- 
man, he  can  stop,  try  experiments,  and  re-arrange 
matters,  and  as  he  has  no  time  to  keep,  he  is  not 
afraid  of  losing  any  ;  but  on  a  fast  public-coach  it  is 
very  different :  it  is  usually  all  that  the  teams  can 


428  PUBLIC    COACHING  CH.   XIX 

do,  to  get  over  their  ground  in  the  time  allotted  ; 
there  is  no  opportunity  to  slow  down  in  order  to 
cool  a  fretful  leader  ;  if  he  will  gallop,  he  has  to 
gallop,  or  else  to  be  handled  with  such  skill  as  to 
bring  him  down  to  a  trot  without  materially  dimin- 
ishing the  pace  ;  for  minutes  are  precious.  In  a 
coach  timed  at  ten  miles  an  hour  including  changes, 
very  close  to  eleven  miles  an  hour  must  be  made 
while  moving,  and  a  minute  or  two  lost,  by  stopping 
or  going  slow,  is  hard  to  make  up  ;  so  that  whether 
the  team  is  going  pleasantly  or  most  disagreeably, 
there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to  make  the  best  of  it, 
and  to  notice  carefully  how  things  may  be  improved 
on  the  run  back,  or  on  the  next  day.  Horses  have 
to  be  shifted  from  one  stage  to  another  to  make  the 
best  use  of  them  or  to  counteract  their  peculiarities. 
Some  horses  go  best  in  town,  others  in  the  country, 
a  bad  wheeler  may  make  a  good  leader,  changing 
sides  may  turn  a  troublesome  horse  into  a  good 
one,  and  all  these  matters  are  interesting  and  re- 
quire  judgement  on  the  part  of  the  coachman. 

Ouickness  at  the  changes,  smartness  of  the  service 
generally,  attention  to  small  details  by  all  persons 
employed,  are  points  which  interest  the  proprietor 
and  please  the  connoisseur ;  and  the  coachman 
never  knows  but  that  in  his  load  of  strangers  there 
may  be  a  master  of  the  craft,  who  will  express  his 
opinion,  on  the  spot  or  at  a  future  time. 

The  mere  driving  is  of  itself  much  more  interest- 
ing  than  that  of  a  simple  afternoon   outing  :   every 


CH.  XIX  PUBLIC    COACHING  429 

mile  of  the  road  must  be  carefully  studied  ;  a  little 
piece  down-hill  must  be  used  to  make  time  and  to 
compensate  for  a  loss  on  another  part,  where  for 
some  reason  the  pace  has  to  be  reduced  ;  a  sharp 
turn  at  the  bottom  of  a  hill  must  be  remembered, 
and  the  horses  kept  well  in  hand  as  they  approach 
it  ;  the  exact  minute  of  passing  each  point  must  be 
learned  by  experience,  in  order  that  there  shall  be 
no  uncertainty  as  to  whether  or  not  the  coach  is  on 
time  ;  the  pace  on  certain  parts  must  be  sometimes 
modified,  depending  upon  the  weather,  so  that  a 
long  hill  may  be  taken  slowly  on  a  hot  day  with  the 
wind  behind,  even  at  the  cost  of  increased  speed 
over  some  less  trying  stretch.  A  careful  study  of 
these  conditions  makes  a  road  more  and  more 
interesting-  the  oftener  it  is  driven  over. 

Added  to  all  this,  the  variety  of  passengers  that 
the  coachman  finds  on  a  public  coach  is  very  enter- 
taining, and  there  is  something-  so  exhilarating  in  the 
motion  behind  four  horses,  through  the  fresh  air, 
that  even  stupid  people  wake  up  and  for  once 
make  themselves  agreeable. 

If  a  coachman  is  lucky  enough  to  get  a  day's  turn 
on  a  strange  coach,  on  a  road  new  to  him,  it  is  most 
interesting.  His  only  guide  as  to  time  will  be  the 
pace  as  determined  by  a  study  of  the  time-table,  and 
he  must,  therefore,  depend  upon  his  own  judgement 
of  the  rate  at  which  his  horses  are  going,  and  upon 
an  occasional  hint  from  the  guard,  as  to  whether  or 
not  he  is  keeping  his  time. 


430  PUBLIC    COACHING  CH.   XIX 

Under  such  circumstances  the  loss  of  even  a  few 
minutes  makes  it  necessary  for  a  coachman  to  use 
all  his  skill  to  enable  him  to  pull  up  at  his  change 
on  time. 

In  England  the  construction  of  good  roads  toward 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  the  love  of  coun- 
try life  and  its  amusements,  and  the  thickly  popu- 
lated state  of  the  country,  made  travelling  by  coach 
a  pleasure  as  well  as  a  business. 

The  same  kind  of  talent  now  bestowed  upon  rail- 
way management,  was  then  devoted  to  coaching, 
and  in  connection  with  the  Post-Office  system,  the 
Government  exercised,  with  an  almost  military  uni- 
formity, a  rigid  supervision  over  the  service.  Able 
and  highly  placed  people  were  interested  in  it,  as  a 
business.  Country  gentlemen  furnished  horses  for 
this  important  service,  and  went  frequently  over 
their  roads,  often  themselves  driving,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  that  everything  was  done  properly. 
A  fierce  competition  as  to  speed  and  punctuality 
sprang  up  on  the  important  roads,  and  every  de- 
tail was  duly  considered  by  the  most  competent 
persons,  often  under  Government  penalties  as  to 
performance  of  contracts.  It  was  this  series  of 
conditions,  lasting  through  a  period  of  nearly  fifty 
years,  that  made  English  coaching  the  thorough 
and  complete  system  that  it  was  :  the  standard 
for  what  has  now  changed  from  a  serious  business 
to  an  amusement. 

That   many   men    fond   of    fresh   air  and    horses 


CH.   XIX  DRIVING    CLUBS  43 1 

should  have  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunities 
which  the  public-coaches  afforded  of  gratifying  this 
fondness  was  natural,  and  many  an  amateur,  as 
skilful  as  the  best  professional,  passed  pleasant 
hours  on  the  driving  cushion. 

After  1835,  however,  the  locomotive  came  rapidly 
upon  the  scene,  and  one  by  one  the  coaches  disap- 
peared, the  coachmen  dropped  into  other  employ- 
ments, and  four-in-hand  driving  bade  fair  to  become 
one  of  the  lost  arts.  Its  traditions  were  kept  up, 
however,  by  the  Driving  Clubs,  the  earliest  of 
which,  The  Bensington  Driving  Club,  was  formed 
in  1807.  Other  clubs,  the  histories  of  which  are 
pleasantly  told  in  the  volume  on  Driving,  of  the 
Badminton  Library,  were  formed  and  dissolved, 
but  the  '  B.  D.  C  lasted  until  1854.  There  seems 
to  have  been  a  short  gap  until  1856,  when  The 
Four-in-Hand  Driving  Club  was  formed,  but  ac- 
cording to  the  annals,  this  gap  was  filled  by  a 
solitary  coachman,  Sir  Henry  Peyton,  who,  with 
his  yellow  coach  and  grey  horses,  was  a  well  known 
figure  on  the  London  streets. 

From  1856  until  1870  The  Four-in-Hand  Club 
kept  Coaching  in  memory,  and  in  1870  The 
Coaching  Club  was  formed  in  London  with  a  larger 
number  of  members,  and  both  clubs  now  maintain 
a  vigorous  existence. 

The  Brighton  Road,  always  famous  in  the  annals 
of  coaching,  had  on  it,  in  different  years,  some  public- 
coaches,  notably  'The  Age,'  driven  first  by  Clark, 


432  COACHING    REVIVAL  CH.  XIX 

and  in  1862  by  the  Duke  of  Beaufort;  and  others 
run  in  1866,  and  afterward,  by  a  band  of  amateurs, 
among  them  Messrs  Angell,  Haworth,  Chandos- 
Pole,  and  Hoare,  whose  names  appear  frequently 
in  coaching-  annals. 

About  1869  and  1870,  at  the  time  of  what  is 
usually  called  the  'Coaching  Revival,'  amateur 
coaching  increased  in  England,  and  has  since  then 
spread  to  America,  and  to  the  Continent. 

Although  four  horses  were  used  a  great  deal  in 
America  in  Colonial  days  and  later,  both  for  public 
coaches  and  for  private  travelling,  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  mention  in  the  memoirs  of  the  period 
of  driving  as  an  amusement.  The  roads  were  too 
bad  to  make  driving  much  of  a  pleasure,  and  lovers 
of  the  horse  preferred  to  enjoy  themselves  in  the 
saddle. 

In  1^60,  a  coach,  built  by  May  &  Jacobs,  of  Guil- 
ford, England,  was  sent  to  Mr  Bigelow  Lawrence, 
of  Boston  ;  this  was  probably  the  first  regular  Eng- 
lish coach  in  America,  unless  some  had  been  sent 
out  in  Colonial  times.  This  coach  afterward  went 
to  New  York. 

It  was  not  until  after  1865  that  a  few  four-in-hands 
driven  to  brakes  or  barouches  were  seen  at  races  in 
the  neighborhood  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  ; 
but  from  that  date  they  rapidly  increased  in  number, 
and  the  establishment  of  'The  Coaching  Club,'  at 
New  York,  in  1875,  aided  materially  in  increasing 
the  taste  for  the  sport. 


CH.  XIX  PUTTING    A    COACH    ON    THE    ROAD  433 

In  1876  Colonel  A.  DeLancey  Kane,  who  in  the 
previous  year  had  driven  in  England,  working  the 
road  from  London  to  Virginia  Water,  put  on  the 
first  amateur  public-coach  in  America,  running  from 
The  Brunswick  Hotel,  New  York,  to  Pelham  Bridge. 
This  was  succeeded  by  others  in  different  parts  of 
the  United  States,  some  of  which  are  mentioned 
below. 

Putting  a  Coach  on  the  Road. — It  is  well 
understood  among  coaching  men  that  the  person 
who  has  been  working  a  certain  road  has  a  right  to 
that  road,  and  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  coaching 
etiquette  for  any  one  else  to  put  a  coach  upon  it, 
or  upon  any  important  part  of  it,  without  having 
first  obtained  permission  of  the  original  proprietor, 
or  the  assurance  from  him  that  he  does  not  intend  to 
occupy  the  road  that  season.  This  matter  having 
been  arranged,  or  a  vacant  road  selected,  the  next 
thing  is  to  go  over  the  road  and  to  study  it  carefully. 

In  modern  public  coaching  the  distance  to  be  run 
is  usually  such  that  a  coach  starting  at  a  convenient 
hour  in  the  morning  can  have  time  for  lunch  at  the 
end  of  the  route  and  get  back  to  its  starting-place 
late  in  the  afternoon  ;  or  a  longer  route  is  chosen 
which  requires  all  day,  the  coach  going  down  one 
day  and  back  the  next. 

In  the  first  case,  starting  at  ten,  a  thirty-mile  drive 
at  ten  miles  an  hour  will  allow  two  hours  for  lunch, 

with  a  return  to  the  starting-place  by  six  o'clock. 

28 


434  COACHING    ROUTES  CH.   XIX 

The  hours  of  some  well-known  coaches  are  given 
as  examples  ;  the  distances  are  one  way  : — 

Brunswick  Hotel,  New  York,  to  Pelham  Bridge, 
Down  10  a.m.  to  11.30  a.m.  15.5  miles. 

Up  4  p.m.  to  5.30  P.M. 

Brunswick  Hotel,  New  York,  to  Yonkers, 

Down  11.30  a.m.  to  1. 1 5  P.M.  18  miles. 

Up   3.25    P.M.   tO   5.IO  P.M. 

Holland  House,  New  York,  to  Ardsley  Casino, 

Down  10  a.m.  to  12.30  p.m.  25.8  miles. 

Up  3.30  p.m.  to  6  P.M. 
Berkeley  Hotel,  London,  to  Guildford, 

Down  11  a.m.  to  2  p.m.  28.5  miles. 

Up  4  p.m.  to  7  P.M. 
Northumberland  Avenue,  London,  to  Box  Hill, 

Down  11  a.m.  to  2  p.m.  25  miles. 

Up  4  P.M.   tO   /    P.M. 

Northumberland  Avenue,  London,  to  Virginia  Water, 

Down  10.45  A-M-  to  2  P-M-  26-5  miles. 

Up  3.30  p.m.  to  6.50  P.M. 
Northumberland  Avenue,  London,  to  Windsor, 

Down  10.30  a.m.  to  1.30  p.m.  30  miles. 

Up  3.40  p.m.  to  6.40  P.M. 
Northumberland  Avenue,  London,  to  Dorking, 

Down  10.45  A-M-  to  r«45  P-M-  29  m^es- 

Up  3.15  p.m.  to  6.15  p.m. 
New  York  Herald  Office,  Paris,  to  Cernay-la-Yille, 
Down  10  a.m.  to  1  p.m.  29  miles. 

Up  3.05  p.m.  to  6.05  p.m. 


CH.  XIX  COACHING    ROUTES  435 

New  York  Herald  Office,  Paris,  to  Pontoise, 

Down  10  a.m.  to  12.45  P-M-  26-3  miles. 

Up  3.30  p.m.  to  6.15  P.M. 
New  York  Herald  Office,  Paris,  to  Maisons-Laffitte, 

Down  10.30  a.m.  to  12.30  p.m.  19.4  miles. 

Up  3  p.m.  to  5  p.m. 
New  York  Herald  Office,  Paris,  to  Versailles, 

Down  10.45  A-M-  to  I2-3°  P-M-  x4-5  miles. 

Up  4.30  P.M.  to  6  P.M.  (Different  Road)  12.5  miles. 

The  following  routes  are  arranged  for  one  day 
down  and  another  day  up  : — 

Plaza  Hotel,  New  York,  to  Tuxedo  Park, 

Down  9.45  a.m.  to  5.15  p.m.  47.5  miles. 

Up    IO.3O  A.M.   tO   5.3O  P.M. 

White  Horse  Cellar,  Piccadilly,  London,  to  Brighton, 
Down  1 1  a.m.  to  5  p.m.  54  miles. 

Up    12   A.M.   tO  6  P.M. 

New  York  Herald  Office,  Paris,  to  Fontainebleau, 
Down  11  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  60  miles. 

Up  1 1  a.m.  to  6  P.M. 

On  these  long  routes  there  is  always  a  stop  of 
from  35  to  40  minutes  for  luncheon. 

The  lengths  of  the  stages,  of  course,  depend 
largely  upon  the  places  where  stabling  can  be  ob- 
tained for  the  change-horses.  If  they  are  of  less 
than  five  miles,  the  time  lost  at  the  changes  will 
not  be  made  up  by  the  increased  speed  which  the 
shorter  stages  permit,  to  say  nothing  of  the  larger 


436  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  CH.   XIX 

number  of  horses  and  men  to  be  kept,  and  if  they 
much  exceed  eight  miles,  they  cannot  be  travelled 
so  fast.  An  ideal  road  is  one  with  eood  stabling- 
every  seven  miles.  On  a  twenty-eight  mile  road 
this  would  require  four  teams,  or  sixteen  horses, 
but  as  each  stage  should  have  at  least  one  extra 
horse  to  fill  vacancies  caused  by  lameness  or  acci- 
dent, twenty  horses  in  all  would  be  required  as  a 
minimum,  and,  if  the  pace  is  at  all  fast,  four  more 
horses,  to  rest  the  others,  would  be  necessary. 

It  is  usually  considered  that  a  fast  coach,  running- 
out  and  in,  should  have  a  horse  to  each  mile  of 
road  ;  that  is,  for  a  coach  going  once  a  day  each 
way,  between  two  places  thirty  miles  apart,  thirty 
horses  will  be  required. 

This  will  wTork  out  as  follows,  each  team  doing  two 
stages  a  day,  one  each  way  : — 

Stages  five  miles  ;  one  rest-horse  to  each  team. 
30  ms.,  6  stages  ;  24  horses  -j-  6  rest  =  30. 

Stages  six  miles. 

30  ms.,  5  stages  ;  20  horses  -j-  5  rest  =  25. 
A  horse  to  the   mile  would   mve  two  rest-horses   to 
each  team. 

Stages  seven  and  a  half  miles. 
30  ms.,  4  stages  ;   16  horses  -f  4  rest=  20. 
A  horse  to  the  mile  would  give  7%Vz   rest-horses  to 
each  team. 


CH.   XIX  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  437 

Beginning  with  five-mile  stages,  a  horse  to  the 
mile  will  give  one  rest-horse  to  each  team,  and 
when  the  lengths  of  the  stages  are  increased  to 
six,  and  to  seven  and  a  half  miles,  the  number  of 
rest-horses  to  each  team  is  increased  to  two,  and  to 
three  and  a  half,  respectively. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  a  matter  for  consideration 
whether  to  have  shorter  stages  or  more  rest-horses, 
a  question  obviously  controlled  by  the  location  of 
the  chance-stables. 

The  Maisons-Laffitte  coach  of  1894,  doing  igj4 
miles,  with  four  teams,  in  two  hours  each  way,  or  39 
miles  in  the  day,  ran  for  six  weeks  with  twenty 
horses,  several  of  them  being  replaced  for  a  day  or 
two  by  hired  horses  owing  to  slight  causes  of  unfit- 
ness. This  was  a  fast  coach,  always  well  loaded, 
running  six  days  in  the  week,  and  in  warm  weather  ; 
five  miles  of  the  road  not  very  good. 

It  is  sometimes  a  question  whether  or  not  the  last 
team  down  the  road  should  do  the  last  two  stages  as 
one,  a  fresh  team  bringing  the  coach  back  over  those 
two  stages.  This  arrangement  will  require  the  same 
number  of  horses,  but  the  location  of  the  stable  for 
the  last  change  must  be  such  as  to  reduce  those  two 
stages  together  to  a  distance  of  not  over  twelve 
miles. 

A  twenty-eight  mile  road,  for  example,  would 
be  usually  divided  as  follows  :  first  stage  7  miles, 
second  stage  8  miles,  third  stage  7  miles,  and  fourth 
stage  6  miles,  each  team  doing  one  stage  each  way. 


43§  LENGTHS  OF  STAGES  CH.  XIX 

The  last  stage  should  always  be  the  shortest,  if 
possible,  since  the  team  which  does  it  has  the  least 
time  to  rest  between  its  two  turns  of  work. 

This  might  be  modified  as  follows :  first  stage 
8  miles,  second  stage  8  miles,  leaving  12  miles  to  be 
done  by  the  last  team,  which  will,  however,  have  a 
long  rest ;  that  is,  until  it  is  required  to  take  the  coach 
back  the  next  day  ;  this  last  stage  being  done  back 
by  the  fresh  team  which  came  out  the  day  before. 

This  is  not  an  uncommon  arrangement,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  suppressing  one  stable  with  its 
attendant  helpers  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  horses  of  the 
long  stage  are  not  quite  so  pleasant  to  drive,  espe- 
cially in  warm  weather  ;  they  are  somewhat  tired 
toward  the  end  of  it,  but  they  will  be  entirely 
rested  by  their  long  stop  in  the  stable  and  come  out 
fresh  the  next  day. 

To  give  an  example  from  actual  practice.  The 
coach  from  Paris  to  Maisons-Laffitte  in  1894,  was, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  season,  arranged  as  follows, 
the  proprietors  of  the  previous  season  having  so 
run  it :  First  stage :  Paris  to  Suresnes,  5.6  miles, 
35  minutes,  town  team  ;  second  stage  :  Suresnes  to 
Bougival,  5.3  miles,  ^  minutes;  third  stage:  Bou- 
gival  to  Maisons-Laffitte,  8.5  miles,  52  minutes,  a 
five-minutes'  stop  being  made  on  the  terrace  at 
St.  Germain.  The  last  team  remained  at  Maisons- 
Laffitte,  a  fresh  team  bringing  the  coach  back  after 
lunch  to  Bougival. 

It  was   found,   however,  that  the  last  team,   after 


CH.   XIX  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  439 

the  stop  at  St.  Germain,  was  not  so  pleasant  to 
drive  as  on  the  first  part  of  the  stage,  especially  as 
it  had  surmounted  a  long,  steep  hill  to  reach  that 
point.  The  arrangement  was  therefore  altered  ;  and 
a  stable  was  equipped  at  St.  Germain,  so  that  the 
last  change  was  made  there,  and  the  horses  which 
did  the  last  stage  to  Maisons-Laffitte  took  the  coach 
back  to  St.  Germain,  no  horses  or  men  remaining 
at  Maisons-Laffitte  overnight.  A  man  from  the  St. 
Germain  stable  was  taken  in  the  coach  to  Maisons- 
Laffitte  to  attend  to  the  horses  while  they  spent 
their  two  and  a  half  hours  there  at  noon  ;  he  was 
assisted  by  a  local  stable-man,  and  replaced  by  a 
local  man  at  St.  Germain. 

This  arrangement  was  a  decided  improvement ; 
the  last  team  was  fresh  and  pleasant  to  drive  both 
ways.  It  took  no  more  horses,  and  only  required 
accommodation  in  an  additional  stable  for  the  noon 
rest,  and  the  services  of  one  additional  man,  or  of 
two  local  men  for  half  a  day  each. 

As  this  coach  ran  in  warm  weather  and  was  fast 
(19.4  miles  in  109  minutes  driving  time,  or  10.7  miles 
an  hour),  the  fresh  horses  at  St.  Germain  were  very 
welcome,  and  since  the  original  time-table  provided 
for  a  stop  of  five  minutes  there,  no  time  was  lost  by 
the  chanore. 

The  examples  of  twelve  miles  for  a  last  stage, 
and  of  this  Maisons-Laffitte  time-table,  are  the  ex- 
tremes, since  the  former  gives  a  somewhat  long 
stage  and  those  of  the  latter  are  very  short. 


44-0  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  CH.   XIX 

A  long  stage,  with  two  teams  to  work  it,  may  be 
convenient  in  the  middle  of  a  route,  if  the  stables  are 
so  situated  that  a  uniform  division  is  not  possible. 

Inasmuch  as  street  work  in  a  large  city  is  more 
trying  to  the  horses  than  work  in  the  country,  and 
since  the  horses  of  the  end  stage  have  only  a  short 
rest  between  their  work,  these  two  stages  (in  a  city, 
and  at  the  end)  should  be  shorter  than  the  stages 
of  the  middle  ground. 

The  divisions  have  been,  thus  far,  considered  as 
if  the  road  were  of  the  same  character  throughout, 
but  four  miles  of  bad  or  hilly  road  may  be  as  tiring 
as  eio;ht  of  the  best,  and  the  distribution  of  stages 
must  be  made  accordingly.  On  a  hilly  road,  where 
the  pace  must  be  slow,  a  long  stage  may  be  made, 
for  '  it  is  the  pace  that  kills.' 

Four  Swiss  vetturino  horses  will  take  a  laro-e  car- 
riage  thirty-five  miles  a  day,  over  heavy  mountain 
grades,  at  a  slow  walk  when  going  up,  and  they  will 
travel  twenty-five  miles  a  day  regularly,  but  they  go 
very  slowly  ;  while  an  average  coach  team,  timed  at 
ten  miles  an  hour,  will  find  two  seven-mile  stages 
a  day  quite  enough. 

An  active  team  to  a  drag;  should  be  able  to  do 
nine  miles  an  hour  steadily  for  two  hours  on  good 
level  roads  without  fatigue,  but  that  is  too  much 
work  to  be  continued,  at  that  pace,  day  after  day. 
Three  hours  at  seven  miles  an  hour,  would  not  be  so 
much  work,  although  the  distance  would  be  greater. 

On  a  hilly  road,  the  time  of  any  one  stage  need 


CH.   XIX  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  44 1 

not  be  each  way  the  same  ;  if  it  is  all  up-hill  one 
way,  it  will  be  all  down-hill  the  other,  and  the  time 
lost  in  going  up  and  that  gained  in  coming  down 
must  be  properly  apportioned  to  the  other  parts  of 
the  road. 

Owing  to  the  wide-spread  fondness  in  the  United 
States,  for  trotting,  an  average  team  of  American 
horses  will  undoubtedly  get  over  the  ground  at  a 
faster  pace  without  galloping  than  the  horses  usu- 
ally to  be  found  in  England  or  France,  nevertheless 
it  may  be  desirable  to  arrange  for  one  galloping- 
stage  on  a  road.  Such  a  stage  is  usually  very 
attractive  to  the  passengers,  and  on  it  horses  may 
be  used  which  cannot,  or  will  not,  trot  pleasantly. 
This  stage  should  be  rather  level  ;  it  is  hard  work 
for  horses  to  gallop  up-hill,  and  it  may  be  timed 
pretty  fast, — thirteen  or  fourteen  miles  an  hour,  if 
it  is  not  more  than  six  or  seven  miles  long-. 

When  Mr  Tiffanv  was  working-  the  Brighton 
road  in  1873,-  he  had  a  galloping  stage,  from  The 
White  Hart,  at  Reigate,  to  The  George,  at  Crawley, 
a  distance  of  nine  miles,  which  he  did  in  thirty  min- 
utes, stopping  once  at  a  toll-gate. 

When  a  coach  runs  out  and  in  the  same  day, 
the  arrangement  of  the  teams  is  simple,  since  the 
morning  team  out  is  the  afternoon  team  back,  the 
last  team  having  the  time  for  rest  at  mid-day  that 
the  coach  has  for  lunch  ;  but  if  two  coaches  run  in 
opposite  directions  on  the  same  hours,  each  the 
whole  length  of  the  road,  with  a  stop  in  the  middle 


442  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  CH.   XIX 

of  the  day  of  only  half  an  hour  for  lunch, — not  time 
enough  for  a  team  to  rest, — the  arrangement  is  more 
complicated. 

If  long  stages  are  adopted,  each  coach  can  take 
its  teams  one  after  the  other  straight  through,  each 
team  working  only  once  on  one  day  and  returning 
the  next.  This  is  simple,  but  not  adapted  to  a  fast 
coach,  because  the  stages  will  be  either  too  lono- 
to  be  done  at  a  high  speed,  or  each  team  will  be 
doing  less  than  a  good  day's  work,  it  being  assumed 
that  a  team  can  travel  a  greater  distance  in  two 
hours  than  in  one. 

If  short  stages  are  adopted,  and  each  team  works 
once  each  way,  over  its  own  ground,  while  the 
early  morning  and  afternoon  teams  will  have  suffi- 
cient rests  between  their  turns,  those  working  in 
the  middle  of  the  day  will  not. 

If,  for  instance,  the  two  coaches  start  from  the 
different  ends  of  the  road  at  10  a.m.,  and  arrive  at 
6  p.m.,  meeting  at  two  o'clock  at  a  point  where  only 
a  half-hour's  stop  is  made,  the  team  which  brought 
one  coach  down  from  i  to  1.45  would  have  to  take 
the  other  up,  starting  at  2.15,  without  sufficient  rest. 
It  will  be,  therefore,  necessary  to  have  at  this  centre 
point  another  team  for  each  coach,  that  team  which 
comes  in,  resting  until  the  next  day.  The  two 
stages  joining  at  this  place  would  have  to  be  longer 
than  the  others  to  equalise  the  work.  If  the  whole 
road,  for  instance,  is  fifty-six  miles  long,  or  each 
half  twenty-eight  miles,  divided  into  four  seven-mile 


CH.   XIX  LENGTHS    OF    STAGES  443 

stages,  and  supposing  for  simplicity  that  each  stage 
requires  one  hour,  the  arrangement  will  be  as 
follows  : — 

Hours —   10  11  12  1  2  3  4  5  6 

Teams—  A  B  C  D        G        H  I  J 

Hours —    6  5  4  3         2  1         12        11        10 

Teams—  A  B  C         E         F        H         I  J 

Team  A  10  to  11  )  Team  F  1  to  2  rests  all  day 

v-  rests  6  hrs. 


5  to  6    J  ,,      G  2  to  3  rests  all  day 

1  to  12  1  ,,     H  12  to  1     ] 
>  rests  4  hrs. 

4  to  5    j  3  to  4    J 

2  tO   I        I  , ,          1     I  I    to    1 2   1 

■  rests  2  hrs. 

2  to  4    J  4  to  5    J 

1  to  2  rests  all  day  ,,       J    10  to  11  1 

,,      E     2  to  3  rests  all  day  5  to  6     j 


This  requires  ten  teams,  four  of  which,  D,  E,  F, 
and  G,  do  only  one  turn  a  day. 

It  is  evident  that  to  equalise  the  work  the  middle 
stages  should  be  longer  than  the  others,  and  they 
might  be  divided  as  follows  :  6,  6,  6,  and  io,  making- 
28  miles,  with  the  times  modified  to  suit  the  changed 
distances. 

The  fact  is,  that  the  additional  teams  are  necessary 
because  there  is  no  long  stop  in  the  middle,  or  be- 
cause the  road  is  done  in  two  hours  less  total  time 
than  it  would  have  been  if  there  were  a  long  stop, 
although  the  actual  driving  time  is  the  same. 

Of  the  two  coachmen  required  to  work  such  a 
road,  one  coachman,  going  over  the  whole  road 
each   day,    will    go    out    Monday,    Wednesday,    and 


444  TIME-CHART  CH.  XIX 

Friday,  and  come  in  on  the  other  days,  the  other 
coachman  going  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  each 
one  will  drive  the  end  teams  every  day,  but  each 
one  will  always  drive  the  same  middle  teams. 

In  arranging  the  time-table  of  a  road  it  is  con- 
venient to  make  a  time-chart,  such  as  is  used  on 
railroads. 

One  is  shown  in  Plate  XXXII.  ;  the  names  of  the 
places  and  the  distances  are  at  the  top,  the  hours 
and  minutes  at  the  sides.  If  a  coach  were  to  start 
from  A  at  10  o'clock,  and  run  straight  through, 
without  stopping,  to  F,  thirty  miles,  arriving  there 
at  i  o'clock,  its  course  would  be  indicated  by  the 
dotted  line  representing  a  speed  of  ten  miles  an 
hour. 

If  it  makes  four  stops  of  3,  3,  5,  and  3  minutes 
each  at  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  its  course  will  be  indicated 
by  the  full  line,  the  flatter  angle  of  which  indicates 
its  superior  speed  while  running.  If  we  suppose  the 
road  to  be  varied  in  its  character,  so  that,  between 
C  and  D,  the  pace  must  be  slow,  the  time  required 
for  that  stage  must  be  taken  from  the  adjacent 
stages,  making  them  faster,  or  from  the  whole  of 
the  rest  of  the  route. 

This  is  shown,  in  a  somewhat  exaggerated  man- 
ner,   by   the  line .      If   the   road   is 

up-hill  from  C  to  D,  the  speed  coming  down  from 
D  to  C  can  be  greater  than  on  the  other  portions 
of  the  road,  as  shown  by  the  return  line. 


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CH.   XIX 


TIME-TABLE 


445 


By  constructing  a  diagram  of  this  kind,  it  will  be 
easy  to  see  exactly  how  the  time  should  be  arranged, 
and  at  what  moments  the  coach  should  pass  any 
other  points  :  x,  y,  z. 

The  diagram  should  be  made  upon  the  engraved, 
divided  paper  which  can  be  bought  of  any  dealer  in 
engineering  supplies. 

After  the  road  has  been  laid  out  in  this  way,  a 
Time-table  is  prepared,  as  follows  : — 


H 

0 

H 

£ 

s 

< 

3 

u 
< 

< 

t/a 

Z 

0 

H 

0 

g 

U 

h 

X 

z 

o 

O 

H 

H 

0 

w 

X 

O 

Z 

2 

0 

Start  from  A  at  io  a.m. 

I 

A  to  B    . 

2 

3 

B  to  C 
C  to  D 

Stop  5  minutes. 

4 

D  to  E    . 

5 

E  to  F 

Total     .... 

The  '  Hour  of  Coach'  is  the  time  of  arriving  at 
each  station.  The  time  in  minutes  of  each  staee  is 
from  arrival  to  arrival,  except  in  the  first  line,  where 
it  is  from  the  time  of  starting  from  the  initial  point. 

In  the  old  English  mail-coach  days  the  guard  was 
provided  with  a  Time-bill  something  in  this  form, 
except  that  it  had  a  column  in  which  the  actual  times 
of  arrival  had  to  be  entered  by  the  guard  so  as  to 
show  how  the  time  had  been   kept.     For  this  pur- 


44^  TIME    LOST    IN    CHANGES  CH.   XIX 

pose  he  was  furnished  with  an  official  time-piece 
or  large  watch.  A  number  of  these  Time-bills  are 
printed  in  Harris's  Coaching  Age,  pp.  277-292. 

The  following  Table  shows  how  much  the  driving- 
speed  has  to  be  increased  to  make  up  the  time  lost 
at  changes,  with  seven-mile  stages  : — 

At  9  miles  an  hour,      i  mile  in  6  min.  40  sec. 
7  miles  in  46.6  min.,  no  stop  =    9.0  ms.  per  hour 

7     ..       ..  45-6     ■•        '  min-  stoP  =    9-2 
7     ..       ..  44-6     ,,       2     ,,  =    9.4 

7     ..       ,.  43-6     ..       3    .-       ..      =    9-6 
7     ,,       ,,  42.6     ,,       4    ,,       ,,      =    9.9 

At  10  miles  an  hour.     A  mile  in  6  minutes. 
7  miles  in  42.0  min.,  no  stop  =  10.0  ms.  per  hour 

7      ,,       ,,41.0     ,,        1  min.  stop   =10.2       ,,        ,, 
7     ,,       ,,  40.0     ,,       2     ,,  =  10.5 

7     ..       ..  39-°     --       3     ..  =  IO-8 

7     ..       --  38-°     ..       4    ..        >>      =  u-o 

At  11  miles  an  hour.      1  mile  in  5  min.  27  sec. 
7  miles  in  38.15  min.,  no  stop  =11.0  ms.  per  hour 

7     ..       --  37-15    "        1  min.  stop  =  1 1.3 
7     ,,       ,,  36.15    ,,       2     ,,        ,,     =  11. 6 
7     •>       >>  3 5 • ' 5    "       3     >>       >>     =12.0       ,,       ,, 
/      n        ' »  j4*  *  3     ''        4     >'        *  *      —        3        >  >        » » 

The  importance  of  making  quick  changes  is  evi- 
dent, and  also  of  not  losing  time  by  stopping  for  the 
purpose  of    altering  couplings  or  of   changing  the 

bittinor- 

The  horses  intended  for  the  road  are  usually 
brought  together  at  one  point,  as  they  are  bought, 
and  tried  so  as  to  arrange  them  in  teams  ;  it  is  an 


CH.   XIX  COACHMAN    AND    GUARD  447 

advantage  to  have  them  all  of  the  same  type,  so 
that  however  they  may  be  shifted  about,  they  will 
look  well  together.  The  town-team  should  be  the 
best  looking-,  and  made  up  of  handy,  quick,  fear- 
less horses  ;  a  sluggish  team,  requiring  the  whip,  is 
neither  pleasant  nor  safe  in  the  streets.  As  soon  as 
possible  the  horses  should  be  put  out  on  the  road 
and  exercised  over  the  ground  on  which  they  are  to 
work. 

The  men  required  will  be  :  a  professional  coachman 
and  a  guard,  whose  duties  are  described  further  on, 
and  if  perfection  is  desired,  two  horse-keepers  for 
each  change  ;  but  one  horse-keeper  and  a  local  hos- 
tler at  the  change-place  can  do  the  work,  provided 
it  can  be  so  arranged  that  the  latter  will  not  be 
called  off  by  his  other  duties  at  the  change-time. 
If  there  are  two  horse-keepers,  one  of  them  must 
decidedly  out-rank  the  other  and  have  authority 
over  him,  or  there  will  be  endless  friction  between 
the  two  ;  and  the  chief  man  must  have  the  entire 
responsibility  of  the  feeding.  Their  duties  are  ob- 
viously those  of  ordinary  stable-men,  but  they  have 
to  be  drilled  in  all  the  points  of  making  a  quick 
and  neat  change  so  that  the  changes  will  be  made 
in  the  same  way  at  all  the  stations. 

The  material  furnished  to  each  stable,  such  as 
buckets,  sponges,  forks  (and,  by  the  way,  a  steel 
fork  should  never  be  allowed  in  a  stable,  only 
wooden  four-pronged  forks  being  used),  brushes, 
halters,   ruo^s,   &c,  should  be  entered  in  a  book,  in 


448  CHANGE-STABLES  CH.   XIX 

which  should  be  noted  all  purchases  and  losses, 
or  die  articles  will  rapidly  disappear.  Every  man 
should  have  a  strong  canvas  bao-  for  his  kit  and  be 
required  to  keep  all  his  tools  in  it.  Each  horse 
should  have  a  number  branded  on  his  fore  hoof, 
and  his  collar,  with  a  corresponding  number  per- 
manently fastened  on  it,  must  always  go  with  him 
when  he  changes  his  stable,  otherwise  changes  of 
collars  will  give  endless  annoyance  due  to  sore 
necks.  The  best  way  to  mark  a  collar  is  by  a 
brass  number  on  the  small  cape,  which,  for  that 
purpose,  should  be  put  upon  the  top  of  a  coaching 
collar  (p.  2  10). 

Whether  or  not  the  horses  should  have  loin  ruo-s 
to  be  thrown  over  them  while  they  are  standing, 
depends  upon  the  climate,  the  time  of  year,  and 
somewhat  upon  the  fancy  of  the  owner.  They  are 
more  important  at  the  ends  of  the  road,  where  the 
horses  stand  for  some  time  while  the  passengers  are 
ofettino-  on  the  coach.  At  the  chancres,  if  the  time  is 
kept  punctually,  they  are  not  so  necessary,  since  the 
horses  should  be  brought  out  only  a  few  minutes 
before  the  coach  arrives,  and  they  can  have  thrown 
over  them  their  stable  rues,  which,  when  the  coach 
appears,  can  be  pulled  off  and  laid  aside,  ready  to 
be  put  on  the  horses  which  are  taken  from  the 
coach  ;  rough  canvas  rugs  are  good  for  this  purpose. 

If  loin  rugs  are  used,  they  should  be  unitorm 
throughout  the  road;  they  certainly  look  'smart,' 
but  they  are  apt  to  fall  off"  if  the  horses  caper  while 


CH.   XIX  TRYING    THE    HORSES  449 

being  led   to   their  places,   and   sometimes   cause   a 
difficulty.     They  must  be  laid  on  under  the  reins. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  in  each  stable  a  diagram 
showing  the  coupling  and  bitting  of  the  team,  such 
as  is  described  in  Chapter  XII.  (Plate  XXVI.). 

Ten  days  or  two  weeks  will  be  required  to  try 
the  horses  and  the  road  thoroughly,  and  just  before 
the  opening  day  the  whole  road  should  be  driven 
over  at  least  twice,  keeping  the  time  and  making 
the  changes  exactly  as  they  are  to  be  made  in 
future. 

It  is  usual  on  the  opening  day  to  have  a  party  of 
invited  guests,  generally  persons  interested  in  coach- 
ing, and  on  this  occasion  everything  should  be  done 
in  the  most  careful  manner  and  with  scrupulous 
attention  to  punctuality. 

Coachman's  and  Guard's  Duties. — The  profes- 
sional coachman  of  a  public-coach  drives  the  coach 
from  its  stable  to  the  office  from  which  it  starts  and 
takes  it  back  from  the  office  to  the  stable,  at  the 
end  of  the  day.  He  has  charge  of  the  horses,  and 
should  frequently  go  over  the  road  to  be  sure  that 
they  are  properly  cared  for  and  to  arrange  any 
transfers  of  horses  from  one  statre  to  another,  which 
may  be  necessary.  He  examines  and  pays  the 
accounts  for  wages,  feed,  and  shoeing.  If  he  rarely 
drives  the  coach  he  has  plenty  of  time  for  all  these 

duties  ;  but  if  he  is  called  on  to  occupy  the  cushion 

29 


450  COACHMAN  S    DUTIES  CH.   XIX 

several  days  in  the  week,  he  must  have  exception- 
ally good  horse-keepers.  It  is  convenient  for  him 
to  have  a  lieht  wagfon  in  which  to  PfO  over  the 
road,  for  which  the  extra  horses  will  serve,  and  he 
may  sometimes  go  down  on  the  coach  and,  stopping 
at  one  of  the  change-places,  attend  to  the  business 
of  that  and  an  adjoining  station. 

Of  some  of  the  London  coaches,  in  late  years, 
the  professional  coachman  is  the  proprietor,  and 
takes  subscribers  who  pay  for  the  privilege  of 
driving  on  certain  days,  in  which  case  the  pro- 
prietor also  goes  on  the  coach,  sitting  on  the  back 
seat,  and  sometimes  drives  a  stage  or  two  if  it 
is  agreeable  to  the  subscriber.  At  times  the  sub- 
scriber takes  only  one  or  two  stages,  out  or  in,  at 
his  convenience. 

The  duty  of  the  guard  is  :  to  receive  the  way-bill 
from  the  booking-office,  to  show  the  passengers 
their  places,  to  see  that  they  have  their  tickets  or 
to  collect  the  proper  fares  from  those  who  have 
not,  to  take  charge  of  baggage  or  parcels,  to  assist 
at  the  changes,  and  to  transact  all  the  business 
connected  with  the  passengers  ;  ordinarily  he  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  horses. 

Usually  at  noon,  the  coach  stops  at  an  inn,  where 
the  horses  are  put  up  immediately  upon  being  taken 
out,  and  the  coach  is  drawn  into  the  yard  or  left 
standing-  in  the  road  near  the  door  ;  but  if  the 
stable  is  at  some  little  distance  from  the  stopping- 
place,  or  if,  for  any  reason,  the  coach  cannot  remain 


CH.  XIX  GUARD  S    DUTIES  45  I 

where  it  stops,  it  is  convenient  to  have  the  guard 
drive  well  enough  to  take  the  coach  to  its  stable 
and  bring  it  back  again,  and  guards  who  know 
anything  about  horses  are  glad  to  get  that  much 
practice. 

The  guard  must  be  able  to  blow  the  horn  well, 
not  producing  those  melancholy  sounds  sometimes 
heard.  To  do  this  requires  good  instruction  and 
much  practice.  The  calls  are  given  in  the  Chapter 
on  'The  Horn,'  and  the  proper  ones  should  be 
blown  at  the  changes  and  stopping  ;  as  to  this, 
guards  are  frequently  careless.  As  a  rule,  the 
guard  can  sound  a  call  better  when  standing  in 
his  place  on  the  hind  boot,  holding  to  the  strap 
fastened,  for  that  purpose,  to  the  roof-seat. 

In  the  country,  the  horn  should  be  used  to  ask 
for  the  road,  of  vehicles  going  in  either  direction, 
and  also,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  proprietor, 
to  enliven  the  journey.  Guards  are  apt  to  give 
too  much  horn  ;  it  interferes  unpleasantly  with  con- 
versation on  the  coach.  In  a  city  it  should  be  used 
with  judgement,  and  the  calls  needed  to  warn  other 
vehicles  should  be  short,  of  a  few  notes  only.  The 
horn  is  a  great  help  to  driving  in  a  crowded  street ; 
but  its  use  should  not  be  abused  ;  it  is  particularly 
annoying  to  other  persons  driving,  when  suddenly 
blown,  in  passing,  so  close  to  a  horse  as  to  alarm 
him.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  proprietor  to  see  that 
the  guard  does  not  thoughtlessly  commit  this  fault. 
In  driving  through   small  towns,  there   is   no  objec- 


452  COACHMAN  S    AND    GUARDS    DRESS         CH.   XIX 

tion  to  a  free  use  of  the  horn  ;  there  are  apt  to 
be  obstructions  in  the  streets,  and  the  inhabitants 
usually  welcome  the  passage  of  the  coach,  with  its 
accompanying  music,  as  a  cheerful  break  in  the 
day's  monotony. 

Coachman's  and  Guard's  Dress. — The  dress  of 
a  gentleman  coachman  has  been  already  described  ; 
the  professional  of  a  public-coach  need  not  dress 
very  differently.  He  should  always  wear  a  white 
hat  when  driving",  but  when  on  the  coach  o-oino- 
to  inspect  the  stations,  this  is  not  necessary.  His 
dress  should  be  plain  and  neat,  and  should  have 
that  unmistakable  coaching  or  '  horsey'  look  which 
is  difficult  to  describe.  If  the  weather  is  cool,  a 
drab  overcoat,  single-breasted,  with  pearl  buttons, 
with  Maps  to  the  pockets,  buttoning  up  rather  high, 
and  reaching  to  within  eight  inches  of  the  ground, 
is  very  '  smart.' 

The  guard's  dress  should  be  a  single-breasted, 
drab  frock-coat,  the  skirt  several  inches  above  the 
knees  ;  with  buttons  on  the  back,  and  side  pockets 
with  flaps  ;  or  it  may  be  double-breasted  and  easy, 
having-  somewhat  the  stvle  of  an  overcoat.  It  should 
button  tolerably  high  in  the  throat,  and  show  a  white 
collar  and  scarf,  or  a  regular  hunting-scarf.  The  col- 
lar of  the  coat  may  be  of  a  bright  colour.  Trousers 
of  the  same  colour  as  the  coat  are  correct,  or  else 
somewhat  tight  breeches,  with  gaiters,  all  of  the 
same    cloth ;    the    latter  are    neater   than    trousers. 


CH.   XIX  GUARDS    DRESS  453 

With  gaiters,  laced  boots  look  best.  The  hat  should 
be  light  grey,  with  low  crown  and  wide  brim,  but  not 
exaggerated  ;  it  may  have  a  dull  felt  surface  or  a 
nap.  Tan-coloured  driving  gloves  should  be  worn. 
A  russet-leather  case  like  a  cartridge-box,  about 
seven  inches  by  four  and  a  half,  is  carried  on  the 
left  side  by  a  strap  over  the  right  shoulder.  It 
holds  the  way-bill  or  other  papers,  and  has  a  pocket 
for  the  key  of  the  coach.  A  small  case  for  an 
open-faced  watch  is  usually  fastened  on  the  front  of 
it,  but  it  is  better  to  have  the  watch  on  the  side  next 
the  body,  where  it  can  be  easily  seen  by  tipping  the 
case  outward  away  from  the  side  of  the  body,  and 
where  it  is  not  likely  to  be  broken.  If  the  watch 
is  on  the  outside,  it  should  be  upside  down,  so  that 
the  guard  can  easily  read  the  time  when  the  case 
is  turned  up. 

The  mail-coach  guards  in  England  formerly  wore 
red  coats,  the  Government  livery,  and  the  fashion  is 
still  retained  on  some  of  the  public-coaches  of  the 
present  day,  but  in  America  it  means  nothing,  and 
seems  to  be  hardly  appropriate. 

Booking-Office,  etc. — The  booking-office  should 
be  at  a  place  where  some  one  will  always  be  in  at- 
tendance to  take  orders  and  money  for  seats.  For 
this  reason,  an  hotel,  or  a  public  office  which  is 
always  open,  is  selected.  For  many  years  the 
starting-place  of  the  public-coaches  in  London  was 
The  White  Horse  Cellar  (Hatchett's),  in   Piccadilly, 


454  COACH    OFFICE  CH.   XIX 

an  hotel  and  booking-office  in  the  old  business 
coaching  days,  and  later  a  public  parcels-office. 
About  1889  the  coaches  abandoned  the  Cellar  and 
started  from  the  Hotel  Metropole,  or  the  Hotel  Vic- 
toria, in  Northumberland  Avenue  ;  the  '  Guildford' 
Coach  starts  from  the  Berkeley  Hotel,  Piccadilly. 
In  New  York,  the  '  Pelham'  Coach,  and  afterward 
the  '  Yonkers'  and  others,  started  from  the  Hotel 
Brunswick  in  Fifth  Avenue  ;  the  '  Tuxedo'  Coach 
from  the  Plaza  Hotel.  In  Philadelphia,  coaches  start 
from  the  Bellevue  Hotel.  In  Paris,  all  the  coaches 
start  from  the  office  of  The  New  York  Herald, 
Avenue  de  l'Opera. 

A  book,  properly  bound,  with  the  name  of  the 
coach  on  the  outside,  should  be  provided,  one  page 
being  devoted  to  each  day.  These  pages  should  be 
headed  with  the  day  of  the  week  and  of  the  month, 
and  it  is  better  to  do  this  for  the  whole  season,  when 
the  book  is  first  opened. 

The  following  is  a  good  form  of  page  : — 

MONDAY,  June  7,  1897. 

Coachman  :  Mr  Thompson  Dols. 

Mr  Jones 4  Pd. 

Mr  Smith 3  Pd. 

Mr  Brown 3  Pd. 

Mr 

Mr  Robinson out     2  Pd. 


Box 

1 
2 

3 
4 


and  so  on  for  the  other  six  seats,  the  sum  at  the 
foot  being  the  amount  for  which  the  agent  selling 
the  tickets  is  responsible.     When  the  settlement  is 


CH.   XIX 


BOOKING    SEATS 


455 


made,  the  amount  may  be  receipted  for  on  the  page 
of  that  day. 

A  ticket  should  be  given  to  each  passenger  bear- 
ing the  name  of  the  coach,  the  date,  and  the  number 
of  the  seat. 

The  seats  are  usually  numbered  as  follows  : 


Box-Seat 

Coachman 

4 

3 

2 

i 

5                6 

7 

8 

Guard 

IO 

9 

In  Paris,  it  is  the  custom  to  have  the  numbers  of 
the  front  seats  run  from  left  to  right. 

This  diagram  should  be  printed  on  the  ticket,  the 
seat  sold  being  marked  thereon.  It  is  usually  on 
the  time-card  also. 

It  should  be  an  inflexible  rule  that  a  seat  is  to 
be  paid  for  when  it  is  booked  ;  places  merely  en- 
gaged, without  payment,  are  frequently  given  up  at 
the  last  moment,  to  the  loss  of  the  coach  and  to  the 
disappointment  of  other  applicants. 

It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  permit  places  to  be 
booked  for  any  date,  no  matter  how  far  ahead  ;  it 
avoids  any  possibility  of  complaint  of  favouritism. 
In  other  words,  the  coach  book  should  be  open  for 
the  entire  season  to  any  one  who  chooses  to  select 
a  date  and  to  pay.      It  is  proper,  however,   to  re- 


456 


TIME-CARDS 


CH.   XIX 


serve  the  opening  and  the  closing  days  of  the  sea- 
son, or  any  day  like  that  of  a  coaching  Meet ;  across 
the  page  should  be  written,  '  no  seats  can  be  booked 
for  this  day.' 

For  the  information  of  passengers  a  time-card  is 
prepared  and  given  with  the  ticket.  Two  speci- 
mens are  printed  below  : — 


From  Monday,  April  loth,  until  Saturday,  June  3d,  1899. 

The  New  York  and  ardsley  Coach, 


GG 


WILL   LEAVE 


99 


HOLLAN  D    HOUSE, 
DAILY,  (Sundays  excepted)  at  10.00  A.  M. 


TIME  TABLE  AND  FARES 


a 

FARES 

s 

6.2 

S  .75 

2.7 

1.00 

3.6 

1.50 

1. 

1.75 

4.2 

2.00 

1. 

2.25 

3.8 
1.6 
1.7 

2.50 

2  75 

3  00 

25.8 

LEAVING 

Holland  House 

*Hurlem 

Washington  Bridge 
*Kingsbridge.  .  . 
Van  Cortlandt.  . 

f*Yonkers  .  .  ) 
\  Getty  House . .  / 
Glenwood 


♦Hastings 
Dobbs  Ferry.  . 

Ardsley 

Ardsley  Club. 


TIME 
A.   M. 

10.00 
10.30 
10.53 
11.15 
11.20 
11  40 


11.45 
11.50 
P.M. 

12.10 
12.20 
12.30 


FARES 


5  .25 
.50 
.75 

1.00 

1.25 
1.50 
2.00 
2.25 
3.00 


RETURNING 
will  leave 

Ardsley  Club 

Ardsley 

Dobbs  Ferry .  . 
*Hastings  .... 
Glenwood  .... 
f  *Yonkers 
\  Getty  House 
Van  Cortlandt..-; 
*Kingsbridge  .  .-. 
Washington  Bridge 

*Harlem 

Holland  House.  . 


lse . .  J 


TIME 

p.  M. 

330 
3.40 
3.50 
4.10 
4.15 


4.20 
4.40 
4.45 
5.07 
5.25 
6.00 


The  Privileges  of  the  Ardsley  Club  are  Extended  to  Passengers  on  the  Coach. 

Single  Fare,  $3.00.  Round  Trip,  $5.00.  Box  Seat,  $1.00 
extra  eacb  way  This  coach  stops  to  take  up  and  set  down 
passengers  wherever  hailed,  except  between  Holland  House 
and  59th  Street. 

BOOKING  OFFICE,  HOLLAND  HOUSE. 

n.  b.— passengers    are   cautioned   to   be   on    time 
♦Change  Horses 


CH.   XIX 


TIME-CARDS 


457 


This  Coach  is  worked  with  seven  teams  daily  (including  Sunday), 

GIVING    FINE   VIEWS   OF   THE 

River  Thames,  Windsor  Castle,  and  Cliveden  Woods,  &c. 


On  and  after  6th    APRIL,    1896, 

THE    MAIDENHEAD    COACH 

"EXPBESS" 

LEAVES 

HOTEL  VICTORIA.  NORTHUMBERLAND  AVENUE, 

at  io  45  a.m. 

AND    RETUKNS    FKOM 

THE   THAMES    HOTEL,    MAIDENHEAD, 

at  3.45  p.m.,  every  day  (Sundays  Included). 


Inter- 
mediate 
Fares. 


s  d 

4  0 

5  0 
5  0 


6  0 

7  0 

8  0 

10  0 


DOWN    JOURNEY 

Daily  (Sundays  included). 


NORTHUM'LAND  AVENUE.  *'  Hotel  Victoria' 

KEW.  STAR  AND  GARTER        

*ISLEWORTH,  "Coach  &  Horses"         

HOUNSLOW,  RED  LION  

*CRANFORD  BRIDGE,  "  Berkely  Hotel" 

HARLINGTON  CORNER 

LONGFORD.  PEGGY  BEDFORD  

*COLNBROOK,  "The  George"       

SLOUGH,  "Crown  Hotel" 

TAPLOW.  RAILWAY  STATION  

♦MAIDENHEAD,  "Thames  Hotel"  


Mile- 

Time 

age. 

Table. 

_ 

10.45 

9 

11  .30 

— 

11.45 

13 

12.    5 

— 

12.20 

— 

12.32 

18 

12.40 



12.55 

23 

1  .25 

— 

1  .50 

30 

2.    0 

MAIDENHEAD.  "Thames  Hotel"         

— 

3.45 

TAPLOW,  RAILWAY  STATION          

— 

3.55 

2    0 

*SL0UGH,  "Crown  Hotel" 

7 

4.20 

3    0 

COLNBROOK,  "The  George"       

— 

4.45 

4    0 

♦LONGFORD.  PEGGY  BEDFORD           

12 

5.   5 

HARLINGTON  CORNER 

— 

5.  13 

♦CRANF0P.D  BRIDGE.  "Bedford  Hotel" 

— 

5.  25 

5    0 

♦HOUNSLOW.  "Red  Lion"             

17 

5.40 

5    0 

ISLEWORTH,  "Coach  &  Horses"         

— 

5.55 

10    0 

NORTHUM'LAND  AVENUE.  "  Hotel  Victoria" 

30 

7.    0 

*  Change  Horses. 

Single  Journey,  10/-.  Return  15/-. 

Box  Seat,  2  6  extra  each  way. 

The  whole  of  the  Coach  to  Maidenhead  and  hack,  £8  8s. 

Places  can  be    secured  at   Coach   Booking   Office, 
"HOTEL  VICTORIA,"  Northumberland  Avenue. 


Some  cards  are  much  more  elaborate,  that  of  the 
'  Guildford,'  for  example,  being  in  three  folds,  and 
having  on  the  sides,  descriptions  of  the  road. 

Blank  way-bills  should  be  also  provided  ;  a  good 
form,  one  half  the  proper  size,  is  given  on  the  next 
page.  The  way-bill  is  filled  up  in  the  office  as  far 
as  the  seats  are  booked,  and  any  additional  fares 
are  put  on  it  by  the  guard.     A  way-bill  is  not  very 


458 


WAY-BILL 


CH.  XIX 


necessary  on  a  short  coach  where  a  majority  of  the 
passengers  go  through,  at  least  the  whole  of  one 
way. 

THE    CRESCENT 

SERVICE    FROM    PARIS    TO    PONTOISE 

WAY-BILL 


Destination. 


O 


I 
2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
io 

1 1 

12 


I 
2 

3 

4 


Box- Seat 


Outside  Seats 


Guard 

Coachman 


Inside  Seats 


Parcels 


8 

< 


H 
Z 

w 


Remarks. 


PLAN    OF    COACH 


II       IO  i 

9iga< 

8      L 

9      S 

\ 

1  4  !   3 

2|     I     | 

~1 

1 

r 

Coach- 
man 

Seat 

Pan's i8p 


CH.  XIX  CHANGES  459 

Changes. — Just  before  arriving  at  the  change,  the 
ends  of  the  reins  must  be  unbuckled  ;  if  the  device 
described  on  p.  273  is  adopted,  it  is  necessary  only 
to  pull  them  apart. 

If  the  passenger  on  the  box-seat  is  accustomed  to 
coaching,  he  will  quietly  pull  up  the  ends  of  the  reins 
and  unbuckle  them,  when  the  change  is  in  sight,  or 
when  the  guard  sounds  the  call  for  the  change,  and 
if  this  passenger  happens  to  be  a  lady,  there  is  a 
manifest  reason  for  having  the  reins  scrupulously 
clean,  so  that  they  will  not  soil  her  gloves.  It  may 
be  also  said  that  the  tongue  of  the  buckle  should 
play  loosely,  the  hole  of  the  rein  should  be  large, 
and  the  keeper,  or  loop,  should  be  large  and  far  back 
from  the  buckle,  or  too  much  time  will  be  consumed 
in  unbuckling-  and  buckling. 

The  coach  should  pull  up  at  the  change-place 
easily  but  promptly,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
leaders  do  not  stop  too  soon,  as  they  almost  always 
want  to  do. 

The  coachman  throws  the  reins  on  the  horses' 
backs,  the  off  reins  to  the  off  side,  and  the  near  to 
the  near  side.  With  a  little  care  they  may  be  so 
thrown  that  they  will  lie  in  a  fold  across  the  back, 
and  the  ends  will  not  fall  in  the  mud.  The  reins 
must  not  be  thrown  down,  however,  until  the  coach- 
man sees  that  some  one  is  at  the  horses'  heads. 

The  coachman  then  puts  on  the  brake,  without 
noise,  but  as  hard  as  possible  (see  p.  328),  and  gets 
down,  taking  his  whip  in  his  hand  ;  if  he  wants  to 


460 


CHANGES 


CH.   XIX 


get  rid  of  it,  he  should  stand  it  behind  the  lamp- 
iron  and  leaning  against  it,  with  the  butt  on  the 
ground.  The  horse-keepers,  one  on  each  side,  pull 
the  lead-reins  through  the  terrets  of  the  wheelers, 
and  run  them  through  the  leaders'  terrets,  as  is 
shown  in  Plate  XXXIII.  They  then  unhook  the 
traces,  the  inside  one  first,  and  lay  them  over  the 
leaders'   backs,    being  sure   that  they  are  laid  well 

over,  so  as  not  to  fall  off 
when  the  horses  move. 
The  leaders  should  be 
led  a  short  distance  away 
and  their  coupling-reins 
unbuckled  ;  they  may  be 
trained  to  stand  still  where 
they  are  left,  or  to  walk  to 
the  stable  if  it  is  close  at 
hand. 

The  wheelers'  reins  are 
huno;  on  the  centre-ter- 
rets  (Fig.  171),  the  pole- 
chains  slacked  ;  the  traces 
unhooked,  the  inside  one 
first  ;  the  coupling-reins  un- 
buckled (since  the  wheelers 
cannot  get  clear  of  the  bars 
unless  this  is  done),  and  the 
horses  led  out  of  the  way.  If  a  spare  man,  or  boy, 
is  at  hand,  he  can  collect  the  four  horses  and  hold 
them  all  at  once,  clear  of  the  coach. 


Fig.  171. 


m 
> 

□ 

33 
m 


> 

CO 

Co 

m 
o 


I 

33 

o 

c 
o 

I 


33 
33 

m 

H 
co 


T3 
l— 
> 

H 

m 

X 

x 

x 


CH.   XIX  CHANGES  46 1 

The  wheel  horses  are  then  led  to  their  places 
from  the  side  or  from  behind.  It  is  a  bad  plan 
to  bring  them  to  the  pole,  head  on,  and  then 
turn  them  into  their  places.  The  pole-chains  are 
hooked  at  their  full  length  into  the  kidney-link 
ring ;  the  traces  put  on  the  roller-bolts,  the  out- 
side one  first ;  and  the  pole-chain  passed  through 
the  ring  from  the  inside,  outward,  pulled  down, 
hooked  into  the  proper  link,  and  its  india-rubber 
ring  pushed  over  the  hook.  The  coupling-reins 
are  then  buckled. 

The  leaders  are  then  led  to  their  places,  with  the 
coupling-reins  already  crossed  and  buckled  ;  the 
lead-reins  are  run  through  the  wheelers'  terrets,  care 
being  taken  that  the  wheel-rein  is  first  taken  off  the 
pad-terret,  or  it  will  be  bound  down  by  the  lead-rein. 
Then  the  leaders'  traces  are  hooked  to  the  bars. 
The  reason  for  running  the  reins  before  hooking 
the  traces,  is,  that  if  the  leaders  start  thev  can  do 
no  harm,  not  being  attached  to  the  coach,  and  they 
can  be  stopped  by  the  reins,  whereas  if  they  are 
hooked  to  the  bars  before  the  reins  are  run,  they 
might  bolt  and  cause  a  serious  accident.  If  the 
lead-reins  have  been  properly  put  into  the  lead-har- 
ness terrets,  they  can  be  pulled  through  the  throat- 
latch  ring  and  the  centre- terret  by  taking  hold  of 
the  end,  the  whole  rein  running  through  freely. 
When  the  near  side  reins  are  ready,  they  are 
thrown  over  the  wheeler's  back  to  the  off  side, 
where  the  coachman  is  ready  to  receive  them.     This 


462  CHANGES  CH.   XIX 

is   the   reason    for    having    the    point,   and    not    the 
buckle,  on  the  near  side  reins. 

The  horse-keeper  remains  at  the  heads  of  the 
leaders  ;  the  coachman  gathers  up  his  reins,  buckling 
them  and  adjusting  them  to  the  proper  length  (see 
p.  286),  and,  taking  his  whip,  gets  up.  He  should 
glance  rapidly  over  his  horses  to  see  that  all  is  right, 
and  especially  that  the  coupling-reins  are  crossed,  and 
that  the  draught-reins  are  outside  and  not  inside, 
adjust  his  apron,  take  off  the  brake,  and,  nodding 
to  the  man  at  the  horses'  heads,  start  off  as  quietly 
as  possible. 

Horses  are  more  apt  to  give  trouble  in  starting 
from  a  change-place  than  when  they  are  leaving  the 
office  at  the  beginning.  In  a  quick  change  they 
know  that  they  are  to  go  the  moment  that  they  are 
put-to,  and  it  is  usually  necessary  to  let  them  go 
promptly,  or  they  will  fret  and  balk.  For  this  rea- 
son, the  men  should  be  instructed  to  move  aside 
quickly,  well  out  of  the  way,  and  since  there  usually 
is,  or  should  be,  plenty  of  room,  the  horses  cannot 
do  any  harm. 

The  change  should  never  take  more  than  three 
minutes  ;  it  can  be  easily  done  in  two  minutes  if 
every  man  knows  his  business. 

For  a  very  quick  change,  if  there  is  room  enough 
and  there  are  men  enough,  the  wheelers  of  the 
chanee  should  be  waitino-,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
road,  in  such  places  that  they  will  be  abreast  of  the 
coach  when  it  stops.     The  leaders  coupled  together 


CH.   XIX  CHANGES  463 

should  be  abreast  of  the  place  which  they  are  to  take 
in  the  coach,  and  standing  on  the  side  of  the  road 
away  from  the  stable,  so  that  they  will  not  be  in  the 
way  when  the  old  leaders  come  from  their  places. 

For  a  three-minute  change,  the  horses  may  stand 
in  a  row,  with  their  heads  out,  on  whichever  side  of 
the  road  is  the  more  convenient,  usually  on  the  off 
side,  and  in  such  a  position  that  the  coach  will  stop 
alongside  of  them.  In  a  narrow  road,  with  vehicles 
going  passing  by,  they  must  stand  in  front.  In 
some  confined  places  they  may  have  to  wait  in  the 
stable  yard,  but  this  will  obviously  add  to  the  time 
of  makinof  the  chancre. 

Accounts  are  given  in  coaching  books,  of  changes 
made  in  old  times  in  less  than  a  minute  on  very 
fast  coaches  like  the  'Wonder.'  '  Nimrod'  [North- 
em  Tour,  p.  338)  says  that  on  Captain  Barclay's 
famous  coach,  the  'Defiance,'  one  of  the  changes 
was  made  in  a  minute,  and  that  the  average  did  not 
exceed  a  minute  and  a  half.  In  a  public-coach  com- 
petition at  the  New  York  Horse-Show  in  1897,  two 
contestants  made  a  change  of  horses  in  the  rincr 
in  58  seconds  ;  there  were  two  grooms  with  the 
change  team,  and  a  guard  and  a  groom  on  the 
coach.  With  a  fast  coach,  no  time  must  be  lost  at 
the  changes  ;  as  will  be  seen  by  the  Table  on  p.  446, 
the  pace  has  to  be  very  much  increased  to  make  up 
such  loss,  especially  on  short  stages. 

If  there  is  only  one  horse-keeper,  as  was  fre- 
quently the  case  with  the  old  coaches,  the  coachman 


464  CHANGES  CH.   XIX 

and  guard  must  assist  if  the  change  is  to  be  other 
than  a  slow  one,  and  the  o-uard  0f  tiie  English  mail- 
coach  was  required,  by  his  instructions  from  the 
Post-Office,  whose  servant  he  was,  to  assist,  in  so 
far  as  it  did  not  interfere  with  his  mail  duties. 

On  the  modern  public-coach,  since  the  guard  has 
no  letter  bags,  and  rarely  any  packages,  to  deliver, 
he  assists  regularly,  and  with  two  horse-keepers  it  is 
not  necessary  for  the  coachman  to  do  anything.  The 
coachman  usually  gets  down,  however,  and  receives 
the  reins  as  they  are  thrown  over  to  him.  In  rainy 
weather,  if  there  are  plenty  of  people  to  assist,  he  fre- 
quently remains  upon  the  box  to  keep  himself  dry. 
In  this  case  he  keeps  the  whip  in  his  hand,  and  hold- 
ing it  to  the  front,  the  reins  are  thrown  over  it  one 
by  one  as  they  are  drawn  through  the  terrets,  when 
by  raising  the  whip,  they  slip  down  to  his  hand. 
This  was  done  on  the  very  fast  coaches  in  old 
times,  and  saved,  at  the  change,  all  the  time  that  was 
required  for  the  coachman  to  gather  his  reins  and 
get  up. 

The  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  coachman 
should  eet  down  at  the  change,  has  been  mooted 
lately  in  some  criticisms  on  public  coaching  ;  either 
way  is  perfectly  correct. 

Howsoever  the  change  is  made,  the  duties  of 
each  person  must  be  carefully  laid  down  and  strictly 
adhered  to,  and  the  drill  for  it  should  be  uniform  at 
all  the  stations  on  the  road. 


CH.  XX  465 


CHAPTER   XX 
PUBLIC   COACHING    GENERALLY 

Speed. — On  good  roads  the  proper  pace  for  a 
public-coach  is  ten  miles  an  hour  including-  changes  : 
if  it  is  made  much  faster,  it  may  be  difficult  to  keep 
time,  but  if  the  quality  of  the  horses,  and  their 
consequent  cost,  is  no  object,  ten  and  a  half  miles 
may  be  attempted.  Less  than  nine  miles  is  too 
slow  to  be  entertaining-  either  to  coachman  or  to 
passengers. 

The  time  of  some  of  the  public-coaches  running 
in  the  past  few  years,  is  as  follows  :  London  and 
Brighton,  54  miles  in  6  hours, — 9  miles  an  hour  ; 
New  York  and  Tuxedo,  47 J 4  miles  in  5  L>  hours 
(leaving  out  the  time  for  lunch), — 9  miles  an  hour  ; 
London  and  Guildford,  28I4  miles  in  3  hours, — 
9*^  miles  an  hour;  New  York  and  Pelham,  15^2 
miles  in  \Y/2  hours, — 10V3  miles  an  hour  ;  Paris  and 
Maisons-Laffitte,  19^2  miles  in  two  hours, — 9^  miles 
an  hour  ;  Paris  and  Pontoise,  26 L3  miles  in  2^ 
hours, — a  little  over  gji  miles  an  hour.  In  all 
these  cases  the  time  of  making  the  changes  is 
included,  so  that  the  actual  driving  time  is  faster. 

In  old  coaching  days  in  England,  the  mail-coach 
rates  of  speed  were  from  9.4  miles  an  hour  to  10.3  ; 
the  majority  running  about  9.5.     The   'Telegraph,' 


466  SPEED  CH.  XX 

London  and  Manchester,  ran  186  miles  in  iSj4  hours, 
— 10  miles  an  hour  ;  the  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen, 
Captain  Barclay's  'Defiance,'  129*4  miles  in  12 
hours  and  10  minutes  (with  a  2-mile  ferry  at  which 
30  minutes  were  lost  and  30  minutes  out  for  breakfast 
and  lunch,  making  the  driving  distance  127^  miles  in 
1 1  hours  and  10  minutes), —  1 1.4  miles  an  hour.*  A 
part  of  this  road  was  travelled  at  the  rate  of  1 3  miles 
an  hour.  The  London  and  Bristol,  121  miles,  and 
the  London  and  Shrewsbury,  153  miles,  were  timed 
at  10  miles  an  hour,  and  the  same  speed  was  kept 
up  all  the  way  to  Holyhead  by  the  Irish  mail.  The 
London  and  Devonport  was  also  a  fast  mail. 

An  interesting  table  of  the  mails  and  the  coaches 
of  those  days  is  given  in  Corbett's  Old  Coachman  s 
Chatter,  p.  300. 

These  speeds  over  long  routes  meant  going  very 
fast  in  some  places  ;  '  Nimrod,'  Road,  speaks  of  the 
'Regulator'  as  doing  5  miles  in  23  minutes,  that  is, 
13  miles  an  hour,  and  of  the  Devonport  mail  doing 
4  miles  in  12  minutes,  equal  to  20  miles  an  hour! 
This  was  in  1832.  Reynardson,  p.  84,  speaks  of 
having  driven  14  or  15  miles  in  the  hour. 

The  French  malle  poste  (see  Plate  VIII.)  was 
timed  at  10  to  10^2  miles  an  hour;f  it  had  short 
stages  of  only  5  miles. 

In  more   modern    times    Mr  Tiffany's    Brighton 


*  Harris,  Coaching  Age,  p.  382. 

f  Beaufort,  p.  327,  and  Morix,  Report,  p.  410. 


CH.   XX  SPEED  467 

coach  did  the  9  miles  between  Reigate  and  Crawley 
in  30  minutes,  stopping  at  a  toll-gate  on  the  way. 

The  Paris  and  Pontoise  coach,  1891,  did  the  7.4 
miles  from  Pontoise  to  Acheres  in  32  minutes,  at 
the  rate  of  nearly  14  miles  an  hour. 

Of  drives  against  time  one  of  the  best  known  is 
that  of  Selby,  on  July  13,  1888,  from  London  to 
Brighton  and  back,  108  miles,  in  7  hours  and  50 
minutes,  a  bet  having  been  made  that  he  could 
not  do  it  in  8  hours.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  13.79 
miles  an  hour,  including-  changes.  Selby  had  8 
teams  ;  the  14  changes  took  altogether  6  minutes 
and  1 2  seconds  ;  which  being  taken  out,  makes 
the  driving  rate  13.97  miles  per  hour. 

On  July  12,  1892,  Mr  Eugene  Higgins,  having 
as  his  invited  guests  Messrs  James  Gordon  Ben- 
nett, William  G.  Tiffany  and  T.  Suffern  Tailer, 
drove  from  Paris  to  The  Hotel  Bellevue,  Trouville, 
124  miles,  in  10  hours  and  50  minutes.  There  were 
13  teams,  and,  owing  to  the  fact  that  better  speed 
was  made  than  had  been  anticipated  and  that  con- 
sequently the  horses  at  the  later  stations  were  not 
ready,  the  1 2  changes  occupied  49  minutes,  leaving 
10  hours  and  1  minute  (601  minutes)  actual  driving 
time,  which  was  at  the  rate  of  12.4  miles  an  hour. 

This  was  a  remarkable  performance,  inasmuch  as 
the  horses  were  strange,  many  of  them  had  never 
before  been  in  four-horse  harness,  and  the  horse- 
keepers  along  the  road  were  entirely  unaccustomed 
to  their  duties. 


468  SPEED  CH.  XX 

The  horses  were  none  of  them  at  all  injured  by 
the  drive,  and  were  all  returned  in  good  condition 
to  the  persons  from  whom  they  had  been  procured. 
The  coach  used  was  built  by  Guiet  &  Co.,  of 
Paris,  for  Mr  Tiffany,  and  is  an  exact  reproduction 
of  the  old  English  mail.  It  is  shown  in  Plate  VII.  ; 
its  weight  is  2712  pounds.  M.  Guiet,  M.  Hieckel, 
an  amateur  photographer,  and  M.  Luque,  the  well- 
known  artist,  were  inside  passengers,  Morris  E. 
Howlett  guard.  The  time  was  from  6  a.m.  to  4.50 
p.m.,  no  stops  having  been  made  except  for  changes. 

In  a  drive  against  time,  there  is  some  difficulty  in 
determining  the  exact  distance  unless  the  roadway 
is  gone  over  with  a  very  accurate  odometer,  since 
measurements  made  on  even  a  large-scale  map  fail 
to  include  some  detours  absolutely  passed  over  by 
the  coach.  In  the  account  of  Selby's  drive,  The 
Field  of  July  21,  1888,  remarks  that  while  the  dis- 
tance is  set  down  as  54  miles,  the  road-books  call  it 
5 1  by  the  road  actually  followed.  Unless,  therefore, 
two  coaches  pass  over  exactly  the  same  road,  it  is 
not  easy  to  compare  the  times  made  by  them  to 
fractions  of  a  mile  in  the  hour. 

In  this  same  article,  The  Field  mentions  a  run, 
from  London  to  Brighton,  of  a  coach  taking  the 
report  of  a  speech  of  William  IV.,  in  three  hours 
and  forty  minutes,  which  is  faster  than  Selby's  time, 
but  the  run  was  only  one  way.  It  also  states  that 
on  May-day,  in  1830,  the  regular  coach  ran  from 
London  to  Birmingham,  109  miles,  in   7  hours  and 


CH.  XX  SPEED  469 


39  minutes,  which  again  is  better  than  Selby's  time 
of  108  miles  in  7  hours  and  50  minutes. 

Whitley,  Coventry  Coaching,  p.  13,  says  that 
Jack  Eyeritt  drove  'The  Wonder'  on  May-day, 
from  Coventry  to  London,  150  miles,  in  8  hours 
and  35  minutes;  this  is  at  the  rate  of  17^  miles 
an  hour. 

Corbett,  p.  129,  says  that  the  Coventry  coaches 
on  other  May-days,  travelled  108  miles  in  less  than 
7  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  15.4  miles  an  hour.  This 
was  about  the  year  1823. 

In  all  these  cases  the  coaches  were  running  on 
their  regular  routes,  with  horses  and  men  in  thorough 
training  ;  their  superior  speed  does  not  in  the  least 
diminish  the  credit  due  to  the  performance  from 
Paris  to  Trouville. 

Before  the  railroads  to  the  Pacific  were  built,  the 
United  States  mails  were  sent  through  by  '  pony 
express,'  and  upon  a  number  of  occasions  races 
were  run  by  the  rival  Express  Companies. 

In  1854  Bill  Lowden,  a  messenger  in  the  em- 
ployment of  Adams  &  Co.,  carried  the  mail  saddle- 
bags, weighing  fifty-four  pounds,  from  Tahama,  on 
the  Sacramento  River  in  Northern  California,  to 
Weaverville,  one  hundred  miles,  in  5  hours  and 
13  minutes;  that  is,  at  the  rate  of  19.12  miles  an 
hour.  He  had  twenty-eight  horses,  stationed  along 
the  road,  about  four  miles  apart.  Each  horse  was 
held  by  a  mounted  horse-keeper,  who,  when  he 
heard  the  approaching  messenger's  whistle,  started 


470  PONY    EXPRESS  CH.   XX 

ahead  at  a  gallop,  leading  the  fresh  horse  on  his 
near  side.  When  the  messenger  came  up  along- 
side, both  horses  being  then  at  full  speed,  he  jumped 
from  his  horse  to  the  fresh  one  without  touching  the 
ground,  and  pulled  the  bags  after  him.  It  was  cold 
weather,  December,  and  the  last  forty  miles  were 
ridden  after  dark,  over  mountain  trails  and  through 
heavy  timber,  with  a  light  snow  falling.  The  first 
sixty  miles  were  covered  in  2  hours  and  37  minutes, 
at  the  rate  of  22.9  miles  an  hour,  or  of  one  mile  in 
2  minutes  and  7,7  seconds  ;  the  last  forty  miles  in  2 
hours  and  36  minutes,  at  the  rate  of  16.44  niiles  in 
an  hour,  or  of  one  mile  in  3  minutes  and  36  seconds. 
This  hundred  miles  was  of  course  only  a  small  part 
of  the  whole  distance  traversed  by  the  express  at 
about  the  same  speed.  The  nineteen  horses  which 
covered  the  first  sixty  miles,  averaged  3.16  miles 
each  ;  the  nine  which  did  the  last  forty  miles,  4.4 
miles  each,  the  pace  being  slower. 

This  account  is  taken  from  a  Western  journal 
and  was  furnished  by  Lowden  himself;  while  not 
exactly  'coaching,'  it  is  interesting  as  a  record  of 
speed  with  relay-horses. 

Whatever  may  be  the  rate  at  which  the  coach  is 
timed,  punctuality  is  most  important,  and  the  coach- 
man should  make  it  a  point  to  start  and  to  arrive 
exactly  upon  time,  and  to  be  at  his  changes  at  the 
moment  marked  for  them.  This  accuracy  is  the  life 
of  public  coaching,  and  no  delays  should  be  per- 
mitted nor  any  passenger  waited  for.     It  is  a  good 


CH.  XX  PUBLIC    COACHING  47 1 

plan  to  print  a  note  to  this  effect  on  the  ticket  and 
on  the  time-card  and  to  adhere  to  it  rigidly. 

The  coach  should  not  be  taken  off  its  regular 
road  or  its  regular  time,  unless  (in  accordance  with 
a  notice  given  in  the  commencement  of  the  season) 
for  some  special  reason,  such  as  the  holding  of  a 
race-meeting,  at  the  place  to  which  the  coach  runs. 
A  coach  which  goes  here  one  day  and  there  another, 
is  not  a  public-coach  at  all,  but  merely  a  vehicle  hired 
for  excursions.  Public  coaching  is  public  business, 
and  as  such  it  must  be  conducted. 

On  a  public-coach,  persons  known  to  be  compe- 
tent whips  are  sometimes  invited  by  the  proprietor 
to  drive,  either  a  stage  or  two,  or  for  several  days 
at  a  time,  and  it  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  most 
scrupulous  care  in  giving  such  invitations  must  be 
taken,  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  accident.  The 
coaches  run  by  coaching  jobmasters  sometimes 
have  subscribers,  who  pay  toward  the  support  of 
the  coach,  with  the  privilege  of  driving  on  certain 
days  ;  in  the  selection  of  subscribers,  the  same  care 
ouorht  to  be  exercised. 

In  Paris,  the  police  regulations  in  regard  to  public 
coaching  are  somewhat  onerous.  The  proprietor, 
who  may  be  the  coachman  himself,  must  be  a  resi- 
dent of  Paris,  and  is  responsible  for  damages  in 
any  legal  action.  The  coachman  must  be  exam- 
ined and  licensed  by  the  police  authorities,  and  if 
he  is  not  himself  the  proprietor,  must  be  regularly 
registered   as   employed    by    the   proprietor.      This 


4/2  PUBLIC    COACHING  CH.  XX 

does  not  apply  to  a  subscriber,  when  driving,  but 
in  this  case  the  regular,  licensed  coachman  must  be 
on  the  coach,  and  is  supposed  to  have  charge  of  it. 

In  London,  the  regulations  are  more  simple,  but 
there,  and  in  American  cities,  licenses  must  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  coaches  numbered,  like  all  other 
vehicles  plying  for  public  hire.  In  London,  public- 
coaches  are  not  admitted  to  Hyde  Park,  and  there 
are,  in  nearly  all  cities,  regulations,  more  or  less 
restrictive,  in  regard  to  Public  Parks. 

On  a  route  which  occupies  all  day,  or  on  a  road 
where  the  coach  runs  to  a  place  and  returns,  it  is 
usual  to  make  an  arrangement  with  the  hotel  at 
which  the  stop  is  made,  to  furnish  a  lunch  at  a  fixed 
price,  and  to  send  word  by  telegraph  at  the  time  of 
starting,  or  from  any  convenient  place,  for  what 
number  of  persons  lunch  is  to  be  provided.  It  is 
customary  for  the  proprietor,  or  the  amateur  coach- 
man, to  sit  at  the  head  of  the  lunch  table.  The 
professional  coachman  and  the  guard  make  their 
own  arrangements  for  meals.  At  some  change- 
place  which  is  passed  in  the  afternoon,  a  stop  of 
six  or  seven  minutes  is  made  for  a  cup  of  tea. 

The  fees  given  to  the  professional  coachman  and 
to  the  oaiard  belong,  of  course,  to  them  ;  those  which 
are  sometimes  given  to  the  amateur  coachman  are 
either  handed  over  to  the  professionals  or  to  some 
charity. 

There  are  many  notes  in  the  books  as  to  the 
distances   driven   by   coachmen.      Corrett,    p.    134, 


CH.   XX  LONG    DISTANCES    DRIVEN  473 

says  that,  on  one  occasion,  a  friend  of  his  drove 
174  miles  without  a  rest.  He  also  says  that  Mr 
Ken  yon  drove  the  whole  journey  from  London  to 
Shrewsbury,  153  miles,  without  resting.  Captain 
Barclay  of  Urie,  who  was  famous  in  the  early  part 
of  this  century  in  all  athletic  sports,  as  well  as  in 
coaching',  drove  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  a  dis- 
tance of  395  miles,  straight  through,  with  only  the 
rests  allowed  for  the  passengers'  refreshment.  This 
was  for  a  laree  wa^er  with  Lord  Kennedy,  and  far 
exceeds  any  long  distance  drive  on  record.  Harris, 
Coaching  Age,  p.  383,  calls  it  397  miles,  and  says 
that  the  time  was  45^2  hours.  '  Nimrod,'  Northern 
Tour,  p.  335,  says  that  the  drive  was  from  London 
to  Aberdeen,  which  is  495  miles,  but  this  is,  probably, 
an  error  ;  all  other  authorities  give  Edinburgh.  I 
have  spent  a  good  deal  of  time  in  searching  for 
some  orioinal  or  detailed  account  of  this  drive, 
but  without  success. 

Driving  regularly  one  hundred  miles  a  day  is 
hard  work,  but  with  a  short  rest  in  the  middle  of 
the  day,  a  man  in  good  condition  ought  to  be  able 
to  drive  daily  seventy  miles.  Much  will  depend 
upon  the  horses  ;  a  hard-pulling  team  taking  more 
out  of  a  coachman  in  one  stage  than  easy-going 
teams  in  three  stages,  and  horses  lazy,  or  not  up  to 
their  work  are  very  fatiguing. 

Beside  the  mere  physical  fatigue  of  driving,  the 
mental  strain  is  sometimes  great,  and  at  all  times 
the  feeling  of  responsibility  and  the  close  attention 


474  AMERICAN    COACHING  CH.  XX 

required,  take  a  good  deal  out  of  a  conscientious 
and  careful  coachman.  A  cool  temperament  is  an 
immense  advantage  to  a  driving  man. 

AMERICAN    COACHING 

The  great  extension  of  railroads  in  the  United 
States  has  restricted  public  stage-coaching  to  a  few 
mountain  districts  in  the  East,  and  to  California 
and  the  far  Western  States,  where  it  still  flourishes. 

The  following  notes  on  coaching  in  the  White 
Mountains,  as  conducted  at  the  present  time,  are 
applicable,  in  the  main,  to  all  American  coaching. 
The  coach  itself  has  been  described  in  Chapter  VII.  ; 
there  is  nothing  peculiar  about  the  harness,  which  is 
usually  plain  and  made  of  single  leather,  the  wheel- 
horse  harness  having  breechings.  The  wheel-reins 
run  through  the  pad-terrets,  but  the  Icad-rems  go 
straight  to  the  hand  from  the  wheelers'  heads,  and 
consequently  reach  the  hand  at  a  different  angle  from 
the  wheel-reins.  Since  they  do  not  pass  through 
the  pad-terrets  they  swing  about  in  a  disagreeable 
manner.  The  lead-reins  pfo  through  rino-s  on  the 
throat-latch  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  wheelers' 
heads.  If  there  are  six  horses,  the  lead-reins  go 
through  the  throat-latch  terrets  of  the  swingf-team 
and  of  the  wheelers,  but  not  through  their  pad- 
terrets  ;  sometimes  the  swing-horses  have  head- 
terrets. 

With  six  horses,  a  chain  is  frequently  used  instead 
of  a  middle  pole,  and  the  swing-team  is  sometimes 


CH.  XX  AMERICAN    COACHING  475 

called    the    chain-team    or  the    chain-horses.     As  a 
rule,  the  ends  of  the  reins  have  no  buckles. 

The  lead-traces  are  never  lapped  nor  crossed. 
The  harnessing  is  somewhat  loose ;  that  is,  the 
traces  and  the  pole-pieces  are  long-  and  the  horses 
travel  far  apart.  The  pole-pieces  are  straps  of  un- 
changeable length  (27  inches),  and  are  fastened  to 
the  pole-head,  a  strap  attached  to  the  hames  being 
passed  through  them  (see  Plate  XV.). 

In  the  White  Mountains  no  great  speed  is  at- 
tempted ;  the  roads  in  many  places  being  soft  and 
sandy,  with  long  ascents.  Six  horses  are  frequently 
driven,  the  load  being  usually  three  tons  : — one  ton 
for  the  coach,  one  for  the  passengers,  and  one  for 
the  bao-orao-e.  The  time  is  about  seven  miles  an 
hour  down-hill,  and  five,  up-hill. 

In  the  West,  on  some  routes,  the  pace  is  often 
fast ;  the  horses,  small  active  mustangs,  being  driven 
at  a  gallop. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  it  would  be  worth 
while  to  attempt  any  comparison  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  American  methods  of  handling-  the 
reins.  The  professional  coachman  on  each  side  of 
the  water  is  firm  in  his  opinion  that  the  man  who 
drives  as  he  does,  knows  how  to  drive,  and  that 
he  who  drives  differently,  knows  nothing  about  the 
matter. 

One  can  hardly  assert  that  a  man  who,  ever  since 
he  was  a  boy,  has  successfully  driven  a  coach  fifty 
miles  a  day,  winter  and   summer,  over  all   kinds   of 


476  AUSTRIAN    DRIVING  CH.   XX 

roads,  is  not  a  good  coachman  and  does  not  know 
his  business  ;  so  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion 
that  both  methods  must  be  more  or  less  right.  It 
is  undoubtedly  true,  however,  that  many  persons 
who  have  learned  to  drive  four-in-hand  with  two 
hands,  have  afterward  taken  to  driving  with  one, 
whereas  no  one  who  began  with  one  hand,  has  ever 
abandoned  that  method  to  take  to  two  hands. 

It  is  interesting-  to  note  that  the  Austrian  method 
of  driving  resembles  the  American.  The  reins  are 
buckled  together  (as  shown  in  Fig.  113),  the  hind- 
most buckle  coming  just  behind  the  hand.  The 
near  reins  are  held  in  the  left  hand,  the  off  reins  in 
the  right,  and,  in  turning  long  corners,  chopping  is 
usual  ;  that  is,  the  near  or  the  off  reins  are  pulled 
while  held  together,  with  the  result  of  shaving  the 
corner  closely  with  the  hind  wheel,  the  inside  wheel 
horse  being  sometimes  touched  with  the  whip  to 
keep  him  away  from  the  corner.  For  sharp  turns, 
a  point  is  made  by  drawing  the  lead-rein  through 
the  fingers,  behind  which  it  makes  a  short  loop, 
owing  to  the  buckle  which  holds  it,  and  after  the 
movement  is  completed  this  loop  is  allowed  to  slip 
out.  For  a  very  sharp  turn,  the  outside  wheel- 
rein  is  looped  in  the  same  way,  to  make  an  opposi- 
tion. 

The  fingering  is,  in  fact,  almost  identical  with  that 
of  the  American  method,  but  from  the  reins  being- 
fastened  together  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  much 
less    flexibility.     In    the    Austrian    style,    the    wheel 


CH.  XX  AMERICAN    COACHING  477 

horses  are  poled  up  tightly,  with  their  traces  always 
stretched  ;  the  lead-bars  are  attached  rigidly  to  the 
pole-head,  although  the  draught  is  by  a  rope  passing 
under  the  pole  ;  and,  in  Continental  fashion,  when 
going  down-hill  the  brake  is  always  on  and  all  the 
horses  have  their  traces  tight.  The  length  of  the 
team  is,  therefore,  invariable,  whether  going  up-hill 
or  down-hill,  and  the  reins,  when  once  buckled  to- 
gether at  the  proper  place,  do  not  require  to  be 
changed,  consequently  the  want  of  flexibility,  above 
referred  to,  is  not  so  objectionable  as  it  would  be 
for  a  team  harnessed  and  driven  in  the  English 
fashion.  In  English,  and  especially  in  American, 
driving,  the  horses  are  much  more  loosely  har- 
nessed, and  the  leaders  are  held  back  on  a  descent 
and  usually  on  a  turn,  so  that  an  invariable  relative 
length  of  the  wheel-reins  and  lead-reins  would  not 
work  satisfactorily. 

Coaching  in  America  in  the  past  is  not  sur- 
rounded by  that  halo  of  romance  which  attaches 
to  English  coaching.  It  was  always  too  severely 
business-like  and  too  roughly  done.  The  '  stage- 
waggon'  (shown  in  Fig.  172,  which  is  a  photographic 
reproduction  of  an  advertisement  in  The  Pennsyl- 
vania Gazette  of  April  19,  1764),  and  the  stage-coach 
(Fig.  173,  from  Ponlson 's  American  Daily  Advertiser 
of  July  11,  1 8 1 2 ),  were  gradually  superseded  by 
coaches  of  more  modern  fashion.  These  old  coaches 
seem  to  have  been  described  much  in  the  same  way 


478 


AMERICAN    COACHING 


CH.  XX 


fe^^J??5-~?-:Sitl 


NOTICE    it  HERtBv    GIVEN, 

TH  A  T  the  Subfcriber,  living  in  Third  flreet,  next  Door  to 
the  Sign  of  the  Three  Reapers,  has  provided  convenient 
Stage-Waggons,  which  go  from  Philadalphii  to  Trenton  Ferrjr 
every  Monday,  Tuefday,  Thursday  and  Friday,  and  there  deliver 
Goods  and  PafTengers  to  Francis  Hulinan,  and  Daaiel  Caflher,  who 
carry  them  to  New-Brunfwick,  to  William  Richards,  and  Simrji 
HurTty,  who  deliver  them  at  Amboy  or  EUzabeth-Town,  where 
they  will  be  received  by  Andrew  Hampton,  who  has  one  of  the 
moft  convenient  Boats  to  carry  them  to  and  from  New- York  ;  the 
faid  Boats  fet  out  from  New- York  on  Mondays  ard  Thurfdays; 
thofe  who  pleafc  to  favour  them  with  their  Cuflom,  rway  depend 
on  being  well  fcrvcd.  Jonathan  Biles. 

Fi<;.  172. 


as  the  English  coaches,  as  the  following  advertise 
merit  in  The  Pennsylvania  Gazette  of  June  18,  1783, 
shows  : — 

'The  New  York  flying  Machine.  The  Sub- 
'  scribers  beg  leave  to  inform  the  public,  that  they 
'  have  established  A  flying  Stage  Coach  &  Wag- 
'  gon  to  perform  the  whole  distance  from  this  city 
1  to  Elizabeth  Town  in  one  day. 

4  The  coach  will  leave  the  Bunch  of  Grapes 
'  Tavern,  in  Third  Street  between  Market  and  Arch 
'  streets,  precisely  at  4  o'clock  every  Tuesday  and 
'  Thursday  morning,    breakfast   at    Bristol,  dine    at 


CH.   XX 


AMERICAN    COACHING 


479 


^^^HPB^il^S^^S^^'; 


The  Cheapest  Travelling  from 
Philadelphia  to  New  York. 

THE  ACCOMMODATION- fare  through  3 
dollars     For  seats  apply  at  the  City  Hoiel  or 
at  the  Stage  Office  No.  28  south  Thirdstr«et- 

1 50  lbs.  Baggage  e<jual  to  a  passenger,  and  all 
baggage  to  beat  the  rwK  of  the  owner. 

The  Proprietors. 

jury  8 2vv 

Fig.    173. 

Princeton,:i:  exchange  passengers  with  the  Stage 
Coach  from  Elizabeth  Town,  and  return  again  the 
same  day  to  the  Bunch  of  Grapes. 

'  The  Waggon  will  leave  the  tavern,  at  the  same 
hour,  every  Monday,  Wednesday  and  Friday  morn- 
ing, proceed  and  return  as  the  coach  mentioned 
above.  The  price  for  each  Passenger  in  the  Coach 
to  Elizabeth  Town  is  Six  Dollars  and  Four  Dollars 
for  outside  passengers  :  and  One  Guinea  each  for 
a  seat  in  the  Waggon. 

'Each  passenger  to  be  allowed  14  lb.  weight  of 
baggage  under  their  seat — But  One  Guinea  must 
be  paid  for  every  150  lb.  weight,  either  in  the 
coach  or  waggon,    and  in  proportion  for  any  less 


*  Princeton  is  44  miles  from  Philadelphia,  making  the  day's  drive 
88  miles. 


480  AMERICAN    COACHING  CH.  XX 

'or  greater  quantity.  The  baggage  must  be  de- 
'  posited  at  the  Bunch  of  Grapes  the  preceding 
'  evening,  otherwise  it  cannot  be  received  in  the 
'  stages. 

'  Gershom  Johnston 
'  Philad.  June  16,  1783.  Charles  Besonett 

'  N.B.  The  Baltimore  Stage  Waggon  leaves  the 
'  Bunch  of  Grapes  tavern  on  Monday,  Wednesday 
'  and  Friday  morning  precisely  at  5  o'clock,  and 
'proceeds  for  Alexandria  (in  Virginia)  a  passenger 
'  taking  a  seat  in  the  stage  at  Elizabeth  Town,  may 
'  arrive  at  Alexandria  in  four  days,  a  distance  of 
'  240  miles.' 

From  another  advertisement  it  appears  that  the 
'  flying  Stage  waggon  '  had  four  horses  and  changed 
every  20  miles.  Another  advertisement,  of  1782, 
says,  '  New  Erected  Stages.  These  Machines, 
'which  are  on  springs,  and  very  easy  carriages,' 
etc. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  Journal  for  February  4,  1  784, 
is  the  following  :  '  The  stage  from  this  city  to  Balti- 
'  more  on  Monday  the  19th  ult.  crossing  the  Sus- 
'  quehannah  on  the  ice,  broke  in,  and  with  difficulty 
'  the  passengers  were  saved,  two  of  the  horses  were 
'  drowned.' 

Evidently  there  was  sometimes  a  competition  in 
speed,  for  one  advertisement  of  1788  says  that 
'  The  drivers  are  prohibited  on  severe  penalties 
'  from  running  their  horses.' 


CH.  XX  ENGLISH    COACHING  48 1 

These  coaches  carried  the  mail  under  contract 
with  the  Government,  and  a  guard  in  charge  of  it ; 
in  fact,  the  system  seems  to  have  been  the  same 
as  that  of  the  mail-coaches  in  England,  but  less 
elaborate. 

English  Coaching. — The  story  of  English  coach- 
ing is  thoroughly  told  by  Corbett,  Malet,  Har- 
ris, Beaufort,  Lennox,  and  Reynardson,  whose 
works  are  mentioned  in  the  List  of  Books  in  this 
volume. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  English  coaching 
was  :  that  there  were  two  kinds  of  coaches,  namely 
Mails,  which  were  under  special  contract  with  the 
Post-Office  Department  and  carried  mail  guards, 
who  were  the  servants  of  the  Government  and  not 
of  the  coach  proprietors  ;  on  these  Mails  only  a 
limited  number  of  passengers  were  carried  ;  and 
secondly  Coaches,  which  were  loaded  more  heavily 
and  which  had  a  guard  of  their  own,  and  some- 
times, on  the  less  busy  routes,  no  guard  at  all. 

Of  course  the  original  purpose  of  the  guard 
was  to  protect  the  mails,  and  he  was  therefore 
armed  with  a  blunderbuss  ;  for  this  reason,  he  was 
often  called  '  the  shooter.'  The  mails  usually  ran 
at  night. 

On  unimportant  roads  there  were  no  mail-coaches, 
and  the  ordinary  coaches  carried  Government  mail- 
bags.  These  coaches  had  places  for  fifteen  passen- 
gers ;    four  inside,   and  eleven   outside  ;    hence   the 


482  ENGLISH    COACHING  CH.  XX 

expression  in  coaching  songs,  of  'eleven  and  four,' 
meaning  a  full  load  : — 

'  As  he  rattles  along  with  eleven  and  four 
'And  a  petticoat  on  the  box.' 

Both  the  mails  and  the  coaches  were  the  property 
of  coach-builders,  who  hired  them  out  to  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  road  or  to  the  mail-contractors,  at 
so  much  a  mile  run  per  month. 

On  a  long  route  there  were  usually  several 
proprietors,  who  together  furnished  the  horses, 
employed  the  coachmen,  and  managed  the  busi- 
ness generally,  dividing  the  profits  according  to  a 
monthly  settlement. 

Some  of  the  large  proprietors  had  as  many  as 
twelve  hundred  horses,  and  horsed  a  number  of 
lines  of  coaches  and  mails.  Harris,  in  The  Coach- 
ing Age  and  in  Old  Coaching  Days,  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  all  this  business. 

The  Encyclopedia  Londoncnsis,  1826,  p.  308,  says 
that  (at  that  date)  '  there  are  about  1  yo  coaches  and 
'  4500  horses,  employed  in  England  for  the  mails  ; 
'all  private  property.' 

The  average  fares  were  :  outside,  2^  to  3  pence 
a  mile,  inside,  double  that ;  the  mails  were  some- 
what dearer. 

The  '  road  game'  is  frequently  referred  to  in  old 
books,  and  it  is  not  a  bad  aid  to  merriment  in  any 
coaching  trip.  Each  person,  or  party  of  persons, 
chooses  one  side  or  the  other  of  the  road,  and  cer- 


CH.   XX  ROAD    GAME  483 

tain  objects  as  they  were  passed  on  the  right  or  left, 
counted  in  a  scale  of  values  well  understood  amono; 
coaching  travellers.  According  to  Reynardson,  a 
donkey  counted  as  7,  a  pig  as  1,  a  black  sheep  as  1, 
a  cat  as  5,  a  cat  in  a  window  as  10,  a  dog  as  1,  a 
magpie  as  1,  a  grey  horse  as  5,  and  some  other 
objects,  now  known  to  us  only  by  tradition,  had 
higher  values.  The  party  of  travellers  making  the 
largest  count  in  a  certain  time  or  distance,  won  the 
game. 


484  CH-  XXI 


CHAPTER    XXI 
COACHING  TRIPS 

Few  more  delightful  ways  of  travelling  can  be 
imagined  than  that  of  driving  a  coach  through  an 
interesting  country. 

When  a  man  starts  with  his  coach  and  horses, 
from  his  own  home,  few  preparations  are  necessary 
beyond  laying  out  the  route  and  making  arrange- 
ments ahead  at  the  stopping-places. 

It  is  necessary,  if  the  party  is  at  all  large,  to  have 
the  heavier  baggage  sent  on  by  a  messenger,  day 
by  day,  but  where  that  is  not  possible,  it  must  be 
despatched  to  some  point  ahead,  and  the  travellers 
must  content  themselves  with  modest  valises. 

With  a  good  team,  carefully  driven,  from  20  to 
25  miles  a  day  can  be  easily  made  over  good  roads, 
for  an  indefinite  time. 

In  England  and  in  France,  where  the  roads  are 
admirable,  the  inns  good,  and  the  stopping-places 
near  together,  coaching  trips  can  be  readily  arranged. 

A  coach  with  the  men,  and  with  either  one  team 
or  two,  can  be  had  from  a  jobmaster  of  London  or 
Paris  ;  with  two  teams,  twice  the  distance  that  can 
be  made  with  one  team,  can  be  driven  each  day  ; 
four  horses  being  sent  on  by  train  every  half-day 
while  the  others  are  working. 


CH.  XXI  COACHING    TRIPS  485 

A  good  plan  for  a  trip  with  one  team  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  coach  starting  about  ten  in  the  morning, 
the  baggage  is  sent  by  rail  to  the  stopping-place 
for  the  night,  in  charge  of  a  man  who  engages 
the  rooms  and  stabling  and  orders  the  dinner ;  a 
stop  of  at  least  two  hours  is  made  at  mid-day  for 
lunch,  and  to  rest  and  feed  the  horses  ;  the  hours 
of  the  afternoon  drive  may  be  so  arranged  as  to 
have  the  most  time  at  the  lunch  place  or  at  the 
night  place,  as  their  respective  interest  demands. 

Barring  accidents,  the  same  horses  will  do  this 
work  for  any  number  of  days,  and  an  unfit  horse 
can  be  replaced  by  rail.  One  of  the  men  hired 
with  the  coach  should  drive  well  enough  to  take 
it  to  and  from  the  stable,  but  if  a  man  is  provided 
who  is  to  drive  on  the  road,  a  higher  charge  is 
always  made  for  him. 

The  cost  of  a  trip  varies  with  the  locality,  but  the 
following  list  of  expenses  of  a  drive  in  the  West  of 
England,  with  a  party  of  five,  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  expense  : — 

Coach,  horses  (a  single  team),  and  two  men,  ^42 
a  week  (this  includes  the  night-stabling  and  feed)  ; 
hotel  bills,  ^38  ;  fees  at  hotels,  £2  ;  railway  fares 
for  valet  with  baggage,  £$  ;  fees  to  coach  men,  £$  ; 
lunches,  and  noon-feeds  for  horses,  not  included  in 
the  coach  hire,  £10  ;  altogether,  ^98,  about  $484 
per  week.  For  a  larger  party,  only  the  hotel  bills 
will  be  increased,  the  other  expenses  will  remain 
the  same. 


486  COACHING    CLUB    TRIPS  CH.   XXI 

Coaching  Club  Trips. — It  has  been  for  many 
years  the  custom  of  The  Coaching  Club  at  New 
York  to  make  one  or  two  trips  every  year,  driving 
from  the  city  to  the  residence  of  a  member  of  The 
Club,  to  spend  a  day  there,  and  to  return  on  the 
third  day.  A  coach  belonging  to  The  Club  is  used, 
and  teams,  sufficient  to  cover  the  ground,  are  fur- 
nished by  members. 

The  distance  varies  from  30  or  40  miles  to  So  or 
90,  and  one  trip  has  been  made  of  317  miles,  con- 
suming four  days,  but  driving  only  one  way. 

The  first  of  these  Coaching  Club  trips  was  made, 
on  the  invitation  of  a  Philadelphia  member,  on  May 
4th  and  6th,  1878,  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia, 
through  Newark,  Elizabeth,  Railway,  Metuchin,  New 
Brunswick,  Kingston,  Princeton,  Trenton,  Bridge- 
water,  and  Holmesburg,  a  distance  of  90  miles. 
The  time  was  from  6.30  a.m.  to  6.30  p.m.,  with  a 
stop  of  40  minutes  at  Princeton  for  lunch,  leaving 
1 1  hours  20  minutes  driving  time,  at  a  rate  of  8 
miles  an  hour.  The  hours  on  the  return  trip,  Mon- 
day, May  6th,  were  from  6  a.m.  to  6  p.m.,  and  on  both 
days  the  arrival  at  the  end  of  the  journey  was  pre- 
cisely on  time.  There  were  nine  teams,  the  stages 
being  10,  11,  jj4,  7j4,  JO,  10,  10,  11,  and  13  miles. 
The  coachmen  were  Messrs  A.  DeLancey  Kane, 
Francis  R.  Rives,  Perry  Belmont,  Theodore  A. 
Havemeyer,  Hugo  Fritsch,  George  P.  Wetmore, 
Frederic  Bronson,  George  R.  Fearing,  and  the 
Philadelphia  member,  the  present  writer. 


CH.  XXI  COACHING    CLUB    TRIPS  487 

This  trip  was  repeated  in  1887,  the  route  and  the 
time  being  the  same,  with  the  exception  that  the 
time  taken  out  for  lunch  was  one  hour,  thereby 
reducing  the  driving  time  to  eleven  hours,  and  that 
there  were  twelve  teams  instead  of  nine.  Many 
other  trips  have  been  made  since  then  in  all  direc- 
tions from  New  York,  but  the  Philadelphia  trip  has 
been  described  because  it  was  the  first.  The  longest 
trip  was  made  in  June  1 894,  from  New  York  to  '  Shel- 
burne  Farms,'  Vermont,  the  residence  of  Dr  Webb. 
This  required  four  days  ;  on  the  first  day,  June  6th, 
the  coach  went  from  New  York  to  Poughkeepsie, 
82 14  miles  ;  on  June  7th  to  Troy,  83*^  miles;  on 
June  8th  to  Rutland,  89  miles  ;  and  on  June  9th  to 
'  Shelburne  Farms,'  63  miles;  a  total  distance  of 
317^  miles.  There  were  twenty  teams,  the  horses 
used  on  the  first  day  being  sent  forward  by  train  the 
second  day  to  be  driven  on  the  third.  Those  used 
on  the  second  were  again  driven  on  the  fourth  day. 
All  the  horses  were  sent  back  to  New  York  by  rail 
on  the  fifth  day,  the  drive  having  been  made  in  one 
direction  only.  The  time  was  kept  throughout  accu- 
rately, no  accident  happened  to  any  horse  and  not  a 
man  was  out  of  his  place, — proofs  that  the  arrange- 
ments had  been  carefully  made  and  that  the  disci- 
pline was  good. 

The  arrangements  for  these  trips  are  briefly  as 
follows  :  a  route  having  been  decided  upon  in  re- 
sponse to  an  invitation  of  a  member  to  visit  him, 
every    member    is    asked    whether    or   not    he    will 


488 


COACHING    CLUB    TRIPS 


CH.  XXI 


furnish  a  team  ;  the  requisite  number  of  teams 
having  been  obtained,  each  member  is  assigned  a 
stage,  usually  by  lot,  and  he  is  notified  at  what  time 
and  place  his  horses  are  to  be  in  readiness,  on  the 
road,  for  his  change.  It  is  customary  to  assign  the 
last  stage  to  the  entertaining  member. 

All  the  members  going  on  the  trip,  start  on  the 
coach,  and  each  one  takes  up  his  own  team  at  its 
appointed  place  and  drives  it  over  his  stage  ;  his 
men  go  inside  the  coach  with  their  blankets  and 
stable  tools. 

A  card  for  the  seats  is  so  made  out  that  the  box 
seat  is  occupied  in  turn  by  each  driving  member, 
thus  giving  each  one  an  opportunity  of  seeing  one 
other  man  drive. 


Stages. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Mr  A, 

C 

5 

4 

IO 

i 

6 

IO 

B 

Mr  B, 

IO 

C 

5 

B 

5 

3 

8 

i 

Mr  C, 

4 

IO 

C 

8 

B 

7 

2 

9 

Mr  D, 

9 

i 

8 

C 

IO 

4 

B 

2 

MrE, 

3 

6 

3 

7 

C 

8 

i 

5 

Mr  F, 

5 

B 

9 

4 

6 

C 

5 

IO 

Mr  G, 

i 

7 

2 

6 

4 

IO 

C 

4 

Mr  H, 

B 

8 

IO 

i 

7 

2 

7 

C 

Mr  I, 

6 

2 

B 

5 

3 

9 

3 

7 

Mr  J, 

2 

9 

i 

2 

8 

5 

9 

8 
6 

Mr  K, 

7 

3 

6 

9 

2 

B 

4 
6 

Mr  L, 

8 

4 

7 

3 

9 

i 

3 

CH.   XXI  COACHING    CLUB    TRIPS  489 

An  example  ot  a  card  is  here  given  where  there 
are  twelve  passengers,  of  whom  eight  drive,  there 
being  only  that  number  of  stages.  C  stands  for 
coachman,  B  for  box-seat. 

For  the  servants,  these  trips  are  a  useful  test ;  it 
is  no  slight  matter  to  have  four  horses  in  good  con- 
dition, all  the  harness  complete,  nothing  forgotten, 
at  a  certain  spot  some  distance  from  home,  ready 
exactly  on  the  minute  and  everything  looking  neat ; 
the  head  coachman  who  can  accomplish  it  must  be  a 
competent  man. 

These  trips  are  usually  timed  at  nine  miles  an 
hour,  which  experience  has  shown  is  quite  fast 
enough,  and  a  point  is  made  of  keeping  time  closely, 
not  an  easy  thing  over  a  road  unknown,  or  only  par- 
tially known,  to  the  members  driving. 


490  ch.  xxii 


CHAPTER    XXII 
THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD 

The  rule  of  the  road  is  to  a  great  extent  a  matter 
of  tradition  and  unwritten,  although  in  some  cases 
it  is  recognised  and  enforced  by  laws  and  ordi- 
nances. 

In  the  United  States,  and  generally  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  vehicles  which  meet  keep  to  the 
right ;  that  is,  they  have  their  left  sides  toward  each 
other  ;  in  the  case  of  ships  this  rule  is  rigidly  pre- 
scribed by  the  laws  of  navigation.  In  Great  Britain 
and  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  the  opposite  rule  is 
observed,  and  vehicles  keep  to  the  left,  while  pedes- 
trians, as  far  as  any  custom  regulating  their  move- 
ments is  observed,  keep  to  the  right.  The  reasons 
for  this  variety  of  customs  are  not  easy  to  trace.  In 
all  countries  when  times  were  less  peaceful  than  at 
present,  and  when  nearly  every  man  carried  a  sword 
or  a  cudgel,  a  pedestrian  naturally  presented  his  left 
side  to  an  approaching  stranger  as  giving  the  best 
opportunity  of  warding  off  an  attack  with  his  left 
arm  while  enabling  him  to  attack  with  his  ricrht. 
Inasmuch  as  those  of  high  rank,  however,  usually 
insisted  upon  taking  the  wall  side,  this  custom  could 
not  have  been  universal,  although  the  desire  to  keep 
to  the  wall  and  at  the  same  time  to  present  the  left 


CH.  XXII  THE    RULE    OF    THE    ROAD  49 1 

side  would  lead  to  passing  to  the  right  in  a  narrow 
street,  by  all  the  persons  moving  in  it. 

With  persons  on  horseback  it  would  be  different  ; 
each  one  would  then  prefer  to  have  his  sword  arm 
on  the  side  of  the  person  approaching,  and  not  to 
be  obliged  tQ  strike  across  his  horse  in  case  of  an 
encounter,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  mounted  men 
observed  a  different  rule,  as  knights  in  tilting  would 
of  course  do. 

In  early  days,  when  the  majority  of  vehicles  were 
guided  by  a  man  who  rode,  or  walked  beside,  the 
left-hand  horse,  it  was  natural  that  he  should  keep 
his  vehicle  on  the  riorit-hand  side  of  the  road  so  as 
to  see  how  much  room  to  give  an  approaching 
vehicle.  In  all  countries  it  is  certain  that  horses 
were  led  and  handled  from  their  left  side,  and  the 
English  terms,  and  American  terms  as  well,  of  near 
side  and  off  side  indicate  that  this  custom  was  iden- 
tical in  both  countries. 

When  carriages  with  a  seat  for  the  driver  came 
into  use,  the  reins  were  held  in  the  left  hand  be- 
cause on  horseback  they  were  so  held,  in  order  to 
leave  the  right  hand  free  for  the  sword,  and  the 
driver  sat  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  vehicle  to 
avoid  having  his  whip  project  over  the  road,  and 
then  it  would  be  more  convenient  for  him  to  permit 
approaching  carriages  to  go  on  his  right,  so  that 
he  could  see  how  near  he  went  to  them,  and  thus 
the  present  English  fashion  might  have  been,  and 
probably  was,  established. 


492  THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD       CH.  XXII 

Whether  or  not  the  English  rule  of  the  road  was 
in  force  in  early  days  in  America,  and  if  so,  when 
it  was  changed  to  our  present  rule,  I  do  not  know, 
although  I  have  made  careful  researches  into  the 
question.  On  many  old  bridges  may  be  seen  the 
sign, — '  Keep  to  the  right  as  the  law  directs,' — but 
so  far,  although  aided  by  the  opinion  of  friends 
learned  in  the  law,  I  have  been  unable  to  find  the 
date  or  the  text  of  any  such  statute.  It  appears 
that  there  is  no  general  enactment  in  England  upon 
the  subject,  but  in  both  countries  the  custom  in 
force  has  so  far  become  law,  that  decisions  in  cases 
of  collision  and  damage  are  usually  decided  by  the 
Courts  as  if  a  statute  did  actually  exist.  There 
are  in  both  countries  numerous  local  ordinances 
regulating  traffic  on  the  road. 

Apart,  therefore,  from  any  historical  interest  that 
may  attach  to  the  origin  of  these  customs,  they 
have  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  force  of  law 
and  must  be  observed  by  coachmen.  The  English 
rule  is  embalmed  in  the  familiar  lines  : — 


'  The  rule  of  the  road  is  a  paradox  quite, 
'  Both  in  riding  and  driving  along  ; 

'  If  you  go  to  the  left  you  are  sure  to  go  right, 
'  If  you  go  to  the  right  you  are  wrong. 


But  in  walking  the  streets  'tis  a  different  case, 
'  To  the  right  it  is  right  you  should  bear  ; 

To  the  left  should  be  left  quite  enough  of  free  space 
'  For  the  persons  you  chance  to  meet  there. ' 


CH.  XXII       THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD  493 

As  there  is  no  '  paradox'  in  the  American  rule, 
no  poet  seems  to  have  been  inspired  to  embody  it 
in  verse. 

While  the  rule  of  driving  is  perfectly  understood 
in  England  and  adhered  to,  that  of  walking  is  barely 
recognised,  and  the  lack  of  a  rule  must  have  struck 
all  Americans  when  walking  in  London.  In  Liver- 
pool  and  in  London  there  have  been  somewhat 
recently  put  on  the  lamp-posts,  notices  to  pedes- 
trians of  'Keep  to  the  right,'  a  sufficient  indication 
that  the  public  did  not  of  their  own  motion  suffi- 
ciently observe  such  a  rule.  In  American  cities  the 
rule  for  pedestrians  is  usually  observed  with  some 
strictness. 

The  rule  in  driving,  of  keeping  to  the  right  being 
universal  in  the  United  States,  it  follows  that  a 
vehicle  when  overtaken  should  be  passed  to  the 
left,  a  rule  which  should  be  always  observed  by 
both  parties  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  vehicle  which  is 
moving  slowly,  upon  seeing  that  another  wishes  to 
pass  it,  should  incline  to  the  right  sufficiently  to 
give  the  passing  one  a  fair  share  of  the  road.  It  is 
ill-natured  to  neglect  to  give  way  for  a  person  who 
wishes  to  go  on  at  a  faster  pace  ;  unfortunately  it  is 
a  not  uncommon  form  of  incivility. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  vehicle,  after  it  has 
passed,  should  be  driven  on  at  the  faster  gait, 
and  should  not  on  any  account  be  pulled  down 
to  the  same  pace  as  that  of  the  overtaken  one, 
when   immediately  in   front   of  it.      If   the  driver  is 


494  THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD       CH.  XXII 

not  certain  that  he  can  go  on  faster  than  the  car- 
riage he  is  about  to  pass,  he  should  not  attempt 
to  pass  at  all. 

In  a  wide  road  or  street  the  slow  traffic  should 
keep  to  the  sides,  leaving  the  centre  for  those  who 
wish  to  go  faster ;  only  a  thoughtless  or  an  ill- 
natured  driver  will   go  at  a  walk  in   the  middle  of 

O 

the  road,  thereby  preventing  those  who  wish  to  go 
faster  from  passing  him,  yet  it  is  a  spectacle  con- 
stantly to  be  noticed  in  the  public  parks.  In  fact,  a 
courteous  attention  to  the  rights  of  others  using-  the 
road  is  the  duty  of  all  drivers.  In  passing  two 
horses,  one  of  which  is  ridden  and  the  other  led, 
it  is  particularly  important  to  go  on  their  left-hand 
side  ;  the  led  horse  is  on  the  off  side  of  the  two, 
and  when  a  vehicle  passes  him  on  his  off  side  he 
is  likely  to  turn  his  croup  outward  and  to  kick, 
in  play,  or  for  defence,  and  in  either  case  an  ac- 
cident may  ensue.  Obviously,  a  man  leading  a 
horse  should  keep  well  over  to  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  road  so  as  to  have  his  led  horse  out  of  the 
way. 

The  introduction  of  street  railways  has  somewhat 
unsettled  the  rule  of  the  road,  for  the  reason  that 
inasmuch  as  a  car  cannot  go  to  the  right,  the  over- 
taking  vehicle,  if  it  passes  to  the  left,  may  meet 
another  one  going  in  the  opposite  direction  on  its 
proper  side,  where  there  is  rarely  room  between 
the  car  and  the  kerb  for  two  carriages.  It  is  there- 
fore    usually   necessary  when    overtaking   a    car  to 


CH.  XXII       THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD  495 

pass  upon  its  right  side  where  no  meeting  vehicle 
is  likely  to  be  encountered.  This  change  of  rule 
is  even  more  necessary  when  there  are  two  tracks 
on  a  street,  because  cars  going  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  carriages  following  them  on  the 
track  are  still  more  in  the  way.  These  move- 
ments should  therefore  be  made  with  much  caution. 
A  car  usually  goes  quite  as  fast  as  any  one  ought 
to  drive  in  the  streets,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  at- 
tempt to  pass  it  even  if  it  is  stopped  for  a  moment, 
since  if  it  starts  while  the  carriage  is  alongside 
of  it,  a  considerable  distance  must  be  gone  before 
reaching  a  place  in  front  of  it,  with  the  chance,  in 
the  meantime,  of  being  obliged  to  stop  for  some 
vehicle  coming  in  the  opposite  direction  with  the 
right  of  way. 

In  going  round  a  corner,  the  proper  side  of  the 
road  should  be  kept  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
turn.  In  turning  to  the  right,  the  carriage  should 
be  driven  somewhat  close  to  the  kerb  all  the  way 
round,  it  will  then  come  into  the  new  street  on  the 
proper  side  of  the  way,  but  in  turning  to  the  left 
out  of  one  street  into  another,  the  left-hand  kerb 
must  be  avoided,  and  a  wide  turn  made,  so  as  to 
come  into  the  new  street  on  the  right-hand  side, 
going  from  the  right  side  of  one  street  to  the  right 
side  of  the  other.  Even  fairly  good  coachmen  fre- 
quently make  the  mistake  of  cutting  close  to  a  left- 
hand  corner,  thereby  obstructing  the  traffic  which 
is   coming  on   the  right  side  of  the  street,   inviting 


496  THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD       CH.  XXII 

a  collision,  and  making  it  necessary  to  continue 
crossing  obliquely  to  the  right,  to  get  on  the  proper 
side  of  the  road, — a  slovenly  way  of  turning  a 
corner. 

The  traffic  of  crowded  streets  is  much  facilitated 
by  a  custom,  common  in  London  and  Paris,  but  not, 
as  yet,  generally  adopted  in  American  cities,  of  the 
coachman  signalling  his  intentions  to  those  about 
him.  If  he  intends  to  diminish  his  pace,  or  to 
stop,  he  raises  his  whip,  usually  twirling  the  thong 
in  a  circle,  to  attract  attention  ;  if  he  is  to  turn 
to  the  right  or  to  go  over  to  the  right  side  of  the 
road,  he  raises  his  right  hand,  having  passed  his 
whip  into  his  left,  as  an  intimation  to  those  behind 
him  not  to  come  up  on  his  right  side  ;  if  he  wishes 
to  turn  to  the  left,  he  does  the  same  with  his  left 
hand.  If  there  is  a  footman  on  the  box,  he  may 
make  the  motion  to  the  left,  as  soon  as  he  knows 
the  intention  of  the  coachman.  On  a  coach,  it 
should  be  made  by  the  groom  who  is  on  the  inside 
of  the  turn,  if  he  knows  that  the  turn  is  to  be 
made ;  as,  for  instance,  in  going  round  a  corner 
toward  home.  When  about  to  turn  or  to  incline 
to  the  left,  the  coachman  intimates  his  intention  to 
those  who  are  meeting  him  by  pushing  his  hand  and 
the  butt  of  his  whip  horizontally  to  the  right ;  he 
can  make  the  same  movement  to  the  left,  but  it  is 
not  so  distinctly  visible. 

In  turning  completely  round,  these  notices  should 
be  given  with  more  care  than  in  turning  a  corner, 


CH.   XXII  THE    RULE    OF    THE    ROAD  497 

since  the  movement  will  be  unexpected  by  those 
behind.     . 

Before  turning  a  corner,  out  of  a  road  which  has 
several  lines  of  traffic  in  it,  the  coachman  should  edge 
over  toward  the  side  to  which  he  intends  to  turn,  so 
as  not  to  have  any  vehicle  coming  up  behind  him  on 
the  inside  of  his  turn.  If,  for  instance,  there  are 
three  lines  of  traffic  going  each  way  on  a  wide  road, 
and  he  intends  to  turn  to  the  left,  he  should  get  into 
the  left-hand  line,  and  when  he  turns  the  corner,  the 
carriages  behind  him  will  move  straight  on  without 
his  being  in  their  way,  but  if  he  remains  in  the  ex- 
treme right-hand  line  until  he  begins  to  make  his 
turn,  he  must  cross  two  lines  of  vehicles  and  stop 
them,  before  he  can  make  his  turn. 

If  he  wishes  to  turn  out  to  the  right  he  should  get 
into  the  right-hand  line,  and  when  he  reaches  his 
corner  he  can  turn  round  it,  without  in  the  least 
interfering-  with  those  coming  behind.  These  rules 
seem  simple  and  trite,  but  it  is  only  necessary  to 
watch  for  a  short  time,  the  driving  in  a  crowded 
road  to  see  all  of  them  violated. 

A  good  horseman  keeps  his  eyes  always  in  front 
of  him,  observing  all  that  is  going  on,  even  if  he 
may  be  at  the  same  time  talking  to  a  person  along- 
side of  him.  This  habit  should  become  a  second 
nature  to  any  man  wishing  to  be  a  good  coachman  ; 
he  will  then  see  what  those  approaching  him  are 
doing  or  are  about  to  do.  He  must  always  be  de- 
cided as  to  what  he  himself  intends  to  do,  and  not 


498  THE    RULE    OF    THE    ROAD  CH.  XXII 

chancre  his  mind  after  havino-  commenced  a  move- 
ment,  or  else  those  meeting  him  will  not  know  what 
he  intends.  This  makes  an  immense  difference  in 
the  ease  and  security  with  which  crowded  traffic 
is  conducted.  In  the  London  streets,  where  nearly 
everyone  seems  to  be  a  born  coachman,  and  where 
anyone  who  does  not  drive  well  is  unmercifully 
guyed  by  those  around  him,  it  is  easy  to  know 
exactly  what  each  person  intends  to  do,  and  the 
traffic  moves  smoothly  even  at  the  most  crowded 
hours.  In  Paris,  where  cabmen  and  private  coach- 
men usually  drive  badly,  and  without  the  least  at- 
tention to  each  other's  rights,  it  is  often  extremely 
difficult  to  foresee  from  his  actions  what  the  man  in 
front  is  cming-  to  do,  and  uncertain  movements  and 
collisions  are  the  result. 

This  is  aggravated  by  the  fashion,  almost  universal 
in  Paris,  of  driving  with  both  hands,  which  makes  it 
difficult  for  a  coachman  to  diminish  his  pace  or  to 
pull  up  suddenly,  owing  to  his  right  hand's  being 
so  far  from  his  left  that  he  cannot  use  it  promptly 
to  shorten  both  reins  tooether.  The  reins  should 
be  always  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  right  should 
be  used  in  front  of  the  left,  and  only  when  required 
to  make  some  movement. 

In  American  cities,  although  the  police  insist  upon 
a  much  slower  pace  than  is  permitted  in  Paris,  the 
state  of  affairs  is  but  little  better,  owing  to  the 
prevalent  idea  that  anyone  can  drive,  that  no  par- 
ticular skill  or  practice  is  required,  and  to  the  fact 


CH.   XXII  THE    RULE    OF    THE    ROAD  499 

that  there  is  no  recognised  standard  by  which  drivers 
expect  to  be  judged. 

Besides  the  rules  of  the  road,  the  courtesies  of 
the  road  should  be  strictly  observed.  Every  vehicle 
is  entitled  to  one-half  of  the  road,  but  it  is  usual  for 
a  light  carriage  to  yield  to  a  heavily  loaded  business 
wagon,  since  that  cannot  so  readily  leave  the  best 
part  of  the  road,  and  some  English  legal  decisions 
recognise  this  courtesy  as  obligatory.  A  vehicle 
going  up  a  hill  should  to  some  extent  yield  to  one 
coming  down,  especially  at  a  crossing,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  more  difficult  to  pull  up  quickly  on  a  descent 
than  on  an  ascent. 

Many  coaching  men  seem  to  have  an  idea  that  for 
some  mysterious  reason  every  vehicle  should  give 
way  to  a  coach,  and  are  not  sparing  in  unfavorable 
comments  on  those  who  do  not  accord  them  an 
excessive  right  of  way  ;  but  there  are  no  just 
grounds  for  such  pretensions  on  the  part  of  a 
person  driving  a  private  coach.  The  feeling  is, 
probably,  traditional,  arising  from  the  fact  that 
the  mail-coaches  and  those  public-coaches  which  car- 
ried a  mail,  had  by  law  what  might  be  called  an 
almost  violent  right  of  way  over  all  traffic.  How 
strongly  this  was  felt  is  shown  by  many  anec- 
dotes, among  them  one  told  by  Stanley  Harris 
on  p.  72  of  The  Coaching  Age,  and  accompanied 
by  a  spirited  illustration  by  Sturgess,  in  which,  in 
the  words  of  a  passenger  on  the  mail,  '  The  sol- 
'  diers  were  marching  down  the  military  road  which 


500  THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD       CH.  XXII 

'  crossed  the  main  road.  Traffic  always  stopped 
'  for  the  soldiers  :  the  mail  could  not  get  through, 
'and  Elwin,  the  guard,  insisted  on  the  Queen's 
'  right.  "  Damn  the  soldiers  !  drive  through  them, 
'Watson!"  he  cried  to  the  coachman.  So  the 
'  coachman  went  for  them,  and  the  soldiers  had  to 
'give  way,  amidst  a  fair  amount  of  bad  language 
'  from  the  officers,  which  was  freely  and  smartly 
'  returned  by  the  guard  and  one  or  two  of  the 
'  passengers,  especially  as  the  officer  had  a  glass 
'  in  his  eye.' 

This  sentiment  undoubtedly  extended  itself  to  all 
public-coaches,  which  were  more  or  less  identified  in 
the  minds  of  the  public  with  the  mail  service,  and, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  a  public-coach  is  running 
on  time,  it  appeals  to  the  sympathy  of  the  '  horsey' 
public  of  England,  so  that  a  public-coach  and  even 
a  private  coach  receives  an  amount  of  courtesy, 
perhaps  unconscious,  not  accorded  to  other  vehicles. 
The  demand  for  the  road,  suggested  by  the  horn 
of  a  public-coach,  is  usually  responded  to  with 
alacrity  and  good  nature  in  England,  where  it  is 
thoroughly  understood,  but  with  a  private  coach 
it  is  not  in  ^ood  taste  to  demand  too  much. 

In  a  city,  it  is  certainly  not  well  to  use  the  horn 
for  such  a  purpose,  but  on  a  country  road  it  may 
properly  take  the  place  of  the  voice,  in  intimating 
to  a  driver  hidden  under  the  cover  of  his  wagon 
that  there  are  other  people  besides  himself  using 
the  road. 


CH.  XXII       THE  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD  5OI 

In  connection  with  this,  one  is  tempted  to  enquire 
if  a  wise  legislation  ought  not  to  prohibit  any 
driver  from  shutting  himself  within  a  cover  which 
prevents  him  from  seeing  out  in  any  direction  but 
forward. 


502 


CH.   XXIII 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

ACCIDENTS 

While  it  is  often  said  that  a  man  who  has  had 
many  accidents  knows  how  to  avoid  them  and  how 
to  '  get  out  of  a  scrape'  with  the  least  damage,  it  is 
not  agreeable  to  obtain  experience  in  this  way,  and 
to  avoid  accidents  altogether  is  desirable. 

It   is   important,    first   of   all,    to   have   coach  and 
harness  in  the  best  order  ;  it  is  almost  criminal  to 
use  rotten  harness  or  any  weak  tackle  ;  next,  con- 
stant watchfulness  is   absolutely  necessary,   and  no 
man  is  a  <jood  or  a  safe  coachman  who  does  not, 
all  the  time,   see  what  is  going  on  around  him,   in 
front,  at  his  side,  and  among  the  horses,  no  matter 
what  else  is  engaging  his  attention.      His  ear  must 
catch  the  slightest  unusual  sound  about  the  coach  ; 
a    break  is    generally  preceded    by  some  warning. 
He  must  not  court  danger  by  driving  too  close  to 
any  object  or  to  a  doubtful-looking  edge  of  the  road. 
But  apart  from    the    accidents    arising  from   bad 
judgement  or  carelessness,    there  are    many   which 
even  attention  will  not  altogether  avoid. 

On  slippery  pavements  the  best  of  horses  may 
fall  ;  against  this,  india-rubber  pads  in  the  front  feet 
or  all  round,  are  the  best  preventive. 

With  soft  snow  on   the  ground,  balls  are  formed 


CH.  XXIII  ACCIDENTS  503 

in  the  foot,  which  slip  and  render  the  horse  quite 
helpless  ;  to  prevent  this,  india-rubber  balling-pads 
are  used,  but  in  their  absence,  filling  the  hollow  of 
the  foot  with  tallow  or  with  common  soap  is  a 
satisfactory  substitute. 

Sometimes  an  unruly  leader,  held  too  tightly  at 
starting,  will  rear,  and  throw  himself  and  the  other 
leader  down  ;  but  they  generally  manage  to  scramble 
to  their  feet  without  any  damage  since  they  are  so 
loosely  attached  to  the  coach. 

The  fall  of  a  wheeler  is  a  much  more  serious 
matter  ;  the  proper  thing  is  to  hold  him  down  until 
the  other  wheeler  is  got  out  of  the  way  to  avoid 
his  being  kicked  by  the  fallen  horse,  and  then  to 
release  the  latter  by  unbuckling  his  hame-strap, 
which  will  loosen  all  his  harness  and  permit  his 
traces  to  be  unfastened.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  the 
trace-end  shown  in  Fig.  103  is  useful. 

If  a  leader  kicks  over  the  trace,  it  is,  usually, 
easier  to  unhook  the  trace  from  the  bar  than  to 
unbuckle  it  at  the  tug ;  and  an  objection  to  the 
arrangement,  otherwise  good,  of  lapping  the  traces, 
is  that  if  the  horse  kicks  over  an  inside  trace  he  has 
his  lesj  over  both  traces. 

A  wheel  horse's  kicking  over  his  inside  trace  and 
getting  his  leg  between  it  and  the  pole,  is  a  serious 
matter.  The  traces  will  be  drawn  so  tight  that  it 
will  be  impossible  to  unbuckle  them,  and  the  proper 
way  is  to  unbuckle  the  hame-strap  on  the  top  of 
the  collar  ;  the  trace  will  then  be  slackened  and  can 


504  ACCIDENTS  CH.  XXIII 

be  taken  off  the  roller-bolt,  or  unbuckled  ;  there  is 
no  excuse  for  cutting  a  trace.  On  no  account  must 
the  pole-chain  be  unhooked  first  ;  that  permits  the 
horse  to  get  back  on  the  splinter-bar  and  will  make 
him  kick. 

A  leader  may  kick  and  catch  his  leg  between  the 
main-bar  and  the  single-bars  if  they  are  connected 
by  a  link  or  chain, — a  dangerous  arrangement  which 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

The  breaking  of  any  part  of  the  harness,  such 
as  that  of  the  hame-strap  of  a  wheeler,  when  going 
down-hill,  or  of  a  rein  under  any  circumstances,  is 
a  serious  matter. 

The  breaking  of  a  trace  has  usually  no  bad 
result  beyond  that  of  delay,  which  need  not  be  long 
if  a  chain  or  extra  trace  is  carried  in  the  coach. 

The  breaking  of  a  pole  may  occasion  a  serious 
accident  if  the  coach  is  going"  down-hill  ;  should  it 
happen,  if  the  brake  is  not  sufficient  to  hold  the 
coach,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  keep  the  horses 
going,  out  of  the  way  of  the  coach  ;  but  if  the  pole 
is  broken  absolutely  in  two,  so  that  the  front  part 
trails  on  the  ground,  an  accident  is  almost  unavoid- 
able. The  soft  side  of  the  road  may  be  sought,  to 
aid  in  stopping  the  wheels,  care  being  taken  not  to 
get  into  a  gutter,  which  may  turn  the  coach  over. 
A  turn  across  the  road,  or  up  a  slope,  is  also  a 
remedy  ;  but  while  this  is  possible  with  a  pair  and 
with  a  vehicle  which  turns  under,  it  is  usually,  for 
want  of  space,  impossible  with  a  coach. 


CH.  XXIII  ACCIDENTS  505 

In  making  a  short  turn,  the  pole  may  easily  be 
broken  by  the  lead  horses  jumping-  sideways  when 
the  coach  is  on  the  lock.  When  this  happens, 
the  break  is  usually  through  the  pin-hole,  in  the 
futchells,  and  if  there  is  only  a  short  distance  to  go 
and  not  down-hill,  by  taking  out  the  broken  piece, 
the  remaining  part  of  the  pole  can  be  jammed  back 
between  the  futchells  ;  then  the  pole-chains  being 
taken  up  very  tight  and  the  leaders  prevented  from 
pulling  on  the  point  of  the  pole,  home  may  be 
reached.  If  a  piece  of  rope  is  run  from  the  D 
of  the  main-bar  to  the  futchells,  the  leaders  can 
pull  by  the  rope  without  disturbing  the  pole. 

A  broken  pole  can  be  temporarily  mended  by 
pushing  the  fractured  ends  tightly  together  and 
then  binding  on,  by  a  strong  cord,  two  or  four  thin 
pieces  of  board,  like  splints.  A  rope  should  then 
be  carried  from  the  bars  to  the  futchells  (as  men- 
tioned above)  to  prevent  the  leaders  from  pulling 
the  pole  out  of  its  splints. 

For  mending  breaks  there  is  nothing  so  good 
as  an  article  not  often  found  in  civilized  places, 
namely  :  a  strip  of  raw-hide.  If  this  is  wetted  and 
bound  round  a  joint,  or  a  splice,  it  will  contract  in 
drying,  and  be  much  tighter  than  any  cord  can  be 
drawn.  Skill  in  tying  some  of  the  knots  used  by 
sailors  is  of  great  advantage  in  case  of  accident. 

The  breaking  of  a  lead-bar,  or  the  coming  loose 
of  one  of  its  ends,  does  little  damage,  unless  the 
bar  falls  on  the  horse's   heels   and   makes   him   kick. 


506  ACCIDENTS  CH.  XXIII 

The  reason  for  putting  on  the  bars  with  the  screw- 
heads  of  the  furniture  up  is,  that  if  a  screw  breaks 
or  falls  out,  its  loss  will  be  noticed  by  the  coach- 
man. This  is  not  an  uncommon  accident,  and  is 
best   guarded  against  by  using  the  rivets  shown  in 

Fig-  3i. 

The  breaking  of  a  front  axle-arm,  or  the  coming 

off  of  a  front  wheel,  is  serious,  and  if  the  coach  be 

going  at  all  fast,  an  overturn  is  probable. 

The  box  of  a  Collinge  axle  will  sometimes  work 
loose  in  the  wheel  and  the  wheel  will  gradually  slip 
off,  but  an  observant  coachman  should  detect  the 
mishap  before  any  damage  is  done,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  off  side  wheel. 

I  once  saw  a  friend  bring  his  coach  home  from  a 
considerable  distance,  after  the*  box  of  a  front  wheel 
had  become  loose,  by  ingeniously  putting  the  skid 
under  the  wheel  and  fastening-  it  bv  its  chain  to 
the  splinter-bar,  which  was  protected  from  being 
scratched  by  having  a  horse-cloth  wrapped  round 
it,  the  coach  being  dragged  on  the  skid  ;  of  course 
the  wheel  had  not  come  off,  but  had  only  started. 

As  may  be  gathered  from  the  remarks  in  Chapter 
IX.,  it  is  not  difficult  to  capsize  a  coach,  but  it  is  an 
unpardonably  careless  thing  to  do  unless  something 
is  broken,  or  the  horses  are  running  away.  The 
coming  off  of  the  skid  or  the  breaking  of  the  skid- 
chain  in  descending  a  steep  hill,  may  cause  a  cap- 
size, whence  the  importance  of  having  this  tackle  in 
good  order. 


CH.  XXIII  ACCIDENTS  507 

On  icy  roads,  the  skid  will  slip  and,  with  the 
brake  hard  on,  the  tire  of  the  wheel  slips  also. 
The  ice-skid  (Fig.  49)  is  good  for  steady  work ; 
a  temporary  substitute  for  it  may  be  made  by  put- 
ting on  the  ordinary  skid  and  wrapping  a  chain- 
trace  or  the  chain  of  the  hook,  round  the  skid  and 
the  rim  of  the  wheel  so  as  to  present  a  rougher 
surface  to  the  road,  as  described  on  p.  89. 

It  is  possible  for  a  wheel  horse  to  catch  his  bit  in 
the  pole-chain  hook  so  as  to  pull  off  his  bridle,  an 
accident  likely  to  be  attended  with  danger  ;  also,  a 
leader,  in  throwing  his  head  up  and  down,  may 
catch  the  branch  of  his  bit  in  the  bridle  of  his 
partner. 

Some  leaders  will  kick  violently  if  a  rein  gets 
under  the  tail,  an  accident  likely  to  happen  in  the 
fly  season.  If  the  horse  is  dangerous  in  that  way, 
one  of  the  men  should  get  down  and  free  the  rein, 
beino-  careful  to  seize  the  tail  and  lift  it  off  the  rein 
instead  of  trying  to  pull  out  the  rein.  If  the  horse 
is  not  a  kicker,  the  rein  can  sometimes  be  set  free 
by  pulling  the  leaders  to  one  side  and  the  wheelers 
to  the  other  in  such  a  way  that  the  diagonal  pull 
will  draw  the  rein  out ;  the  rein  should  be  slack  at 
the  moment,  and  a  slight  flick  with  the  whip  on 
the  horse's  rump  will  cause  the  tail  to  be  lifted, 
and  so  facilitate  the  operation. 

A  way  of  preventing  the  horse  from  getting  his 
tail  over  the  rein,  is  to  pass  both  lead-reins  through 
a  ring  slipped  on  them  between  the  leaders  and  the 


508  ACCIDENTS  CH.  XXIII 

wheelers,  which  keeps  the  reins  together,  and  away 
from  the  tails.  This  ring  must  be  lashed  tightly  to 
one  of  the  reins  or  else  it  will  slip  out  of  place. 

Another  way  is  to  run  the  rein  of  the  horse  that 
whisks  his  tail,  through  the  throat-latch  of  the 
wheeler  diagonally  behind  him  ;  but  this  is  obviously 
desirable  for  a  short  distance  only,  in  an  emergency, 
since  it  is  apt  to  interfere  with  the  wheeler's  work. 

A  not  uncommon  accident,  which  cannot  happen 
if  the  reins  are  properly  made,  is  that  of  catching 
the  fork  of  the  lead-reins  on  a  leader's  tail. 

Should  a  leader  shy  violently,  he  may  pull  his 
coupling-buckle  through  the  pad-terret  of  his  part- 
ner. For  the  means  of  preventing  both  of  these 
accidents,  see  the  article  on  '  Reins'  in  the  Chapter 
on  '  Harness.' 

Driving  too  fast  round  a  turn,  and  striking  the 
wheel  against  a  stone,  is  perhaps  the  most  common 
cause  of  serious  accidents,  since  by  the  shock  the 
coachman  may  be  thrown  off  the  coach. 

A  horse  standing  unattended,  by  the  side  of  the 
road,  should,  in  passing,  be  watched  ;  he  may  turn 
suddenly  into  the  road  and  throw  down  a  leader. 

To  have  a  horse  balk,  or  jib,  and  refuse  to  go, 
can  be,  perhaps,  hardly  called  an  accident,  but  it  is 
desperately  annoying  and  very  difficult  to  manage. 
Every  horseman  has  his  own  method  of  inducing 
the  horse  to  move,  which  he  considers  infallible 
until  he  tries  to  put  it  in  practice,  when  it  usually 
fails. 


CH.   XXIII  ACCIDENTS  509 

Anything  which  distracts  the  horse's  attention 
from  the  idea  which  he  has  in  his  head,  may  be  suc- 
cessful,— for  instance,  lifting  his  foot  and  hammering- 
on  the  hoof  as  if  shoeing  him.  Violence  of  any  kind 
usually  makes  matters  worse. 

A  pulling  horse  may  be  made  more  manageable 
by  passing  his  coupling-rein  under  the  throat-latch 
of  his  partner  before  buckling  it  to  the  bit.  This 
is  called  throat-latching,  frequently  pronounced 
'  throat-lashing-.' 

In  old  coaching  days,  wild  or  troublesome  horses 
were  sometimes  'moped,'  that  is,  a  leather  screen 
or  shade  was  fastened  to  the  bridle  and  covered  the 
eyes,  so  that  the  horse  could  see  only  downward  ; 
'  moping  a  leader'  was  an  expression  frequently  used. 

Horses  must  never  be  left  unattended  ;  no  matter 
how  quiet  they  may  be,  something  may  frighten 
them  and  disastrous  results  ensue. 

During  fog,  or  falling  snow,  it  is  frequently  difficult 
to  see  the  road  or  what  is  ahead,  and  at  nieht  the 
light  of  the  lamps  shining  on  the  fog  is  bewildering. 
This  may  be  somewhat  obviated  by  partially  covering 
the  lamps  so  that  the  light  may  shine  down  on  the 
road,  but  not  too  much  ahead. 

In  driving  tired  horses,  the  work  must  be  so 
distributed  as  to  favor  a  weak  horse  ;  under  some 
circumstances  the  leaders  should  be  kept  as  fresh 
as  possible,  since,  as  a  coaching  writer  tersely  puts 
it,  '  a  tired  wheeler  may  be  dragged  home,  but  if  a 
leader  cuts  it,  you're  planted.' 


IO 


CH.  XXIV 


CHAPTER    XXIV 


COACHING    CLUBS 


Mention  has  been  made  of  the  Coaching  Clubs 
in  England.  Similar  ones  have  been  formed  in  the 
United  States  '  for  the  encouragement  of  four-in- 
hand  driving.'  The  oldest  is  that  in  New  York, 
established  in  1875,  which  has  for  its  title  'The 
Coaching  Club  ;'  the  following  is  a  list  of  its  mem- 
bers from  the  beginning  ;  those  who  have  died  or 
resigned  beinor  marked  D  or  R  : — 


Charles  A.   Baldwin. 
J.   D.   Roman  Baldwin. 
F.   0.   Beach.     R. 
George  A.  Bech.     D. 
Isaac  Bell,  Jr.     D. 
August  Belmont.     D. 
August  Belmont,  Jr. 
Oliver  H.   P.   Belmont. 
Perry  Belmont. 
James  Gordon  Bennett. 
A.   S.   Bigelow. 
Frederic  Bronson.     D. 
Harold  Brown.     D. 
Neilson  Brown. 
H.   R.   A.   Carey.     D. 
Charles  Carroll. 
Alexander  J.   Cassatt. 
William  P.  Douglas. 
Tracy  Dows. 
George  P.  Eustis. 


George  R.  Fearing.     R. 
Hugo  O.  Fritsch.     D. 
Frederic  Gebhard. 
Robert  Livingston  Gerry. 
William  C.  Gulliver. 
Charles  F.  Havemeyer.     D. 
Theodore  A.  Havemeyer.    D. 
Theodore  A.  Havemeyer,  Jr. 
George  Griswold  Haven. 
Eugene  Higgins. 
Thomas  Hitchcock,  Jr. 
C.   Oliver  Iselin. 
William  Jay. 
Leonard  \V.  Jerome.     D. 
C.   H.  Joy.     D. 
Delancy  A.   Kane. 
S.  Nicholson  Kane. 
Gustav  E.   Kissel. 
Prescott  Lawrence. 
N.  Griswold  Lorillard.     D. 


CH.  XXIV 


COACHING    CLUBS 


5" 


Pierre  Lorillard.     R. 
Richard  McCreery. 
George  Von  L.   Meyer. 
Ogden  Mills. 
Edwin  D.   Morgan. 
William  Forbes  Morgan. 
Edward  Morrell. 
Richard  Mortimer. 
Stanley  Mortimer. 
Frederick  Neilson.     D. 
Thomas  Newbold.     R. 
Harry  Oelrichs.     R. 
E.   M.   Padelford.     R. 
James  V.   Parker.      R. 
George  R.  Read. 
Isaac  H.   Reed.     D. 
A.  Thorndike  Rice.     D. 
Francis  R.   Rives.     D. 
Reginald  Wm.   Rives. 

Honorary  Member.     The 


Christopher  R.   Robert.    D. 
Fairman  Rogers. 
J.   Roosevelt  Roosevelt. 
F.  Augustus   Schermerhorn. 
W.  Watts  Sherman. 
F.    K.   Sturgis. 
E.   V.   R.   Thayer. 
Nathaniel  Thayer. 
Perry  Tiffany. 
William  R.   Travers.     R. 
Francis  T.   Underhill.     R. 
James  J.   Van  Alen. 
Alfred  G.   Vanderbilt. 
William  K.   Vanderbilt. 
W.   Seward  Webb. 
George  Peabody  Wetmore. 
Augustus  Whiting.     R. 
Harry  Payne  Whitney. 
William  C.  Whitney. 
Duke  of  Beaufort.     D. 


'  The   Four-in-Hand   CI 

from  February  28,  1890. 

J.   C.   Mercer  Biddle. 
Edward  Brooke. 
Neilson  Brown. 
Edward  Browning. 
Harrison  K.   Caner. 
William  E.   Carter. 
Alexander  J.   Cassatt. 

B.  Dawson  Coleman. 
A.  J.   Drexel. 

G.   W.   C.   Drexel.     R. 
William  L.   Elkins,  Jr. 

C.  Davis  English. 
Henry  Fairfax. 
John  R.   Fell.     D. 

These  lists  are  con 


ub '   of  Philadelphia  dates 
Its  members  are  : — 

S.   F.   Houston. 

H.    P.    McKean,   Jr. 

J.   Willis  Martin. 

E.     RlTTENHOUSE    MlLLER. 

Edward  Morrell. 
P.   S.   P.   Randolph. 
Reginald  W.   Rives. 
Edward  B.   Smith. 
William  Struthers. 
Barclay  H.  Warburton. 
J.   G.   Waterman. 
J.   E.   Widener. 
S.   Megargee  Wright. 

ected  to  May  1900. 


512 


COACHING    CLUBS 


CH.  XXIV 


There  are  Clubs  in  other  cities  of  the  United  States. 

In  Paris,  there  is,  besides  'La  Cercle  des  Gtiides' 
which  is  a  French  Club,  'The  Reunion  Road  Club,' 
formed  in  1893  with  the  object  of  encouraging  road- 
coaching. 

Its  members  are  : — 


Chester  Arthur. 
Frederick  0.  Beach. 
O.   H.   P.  Belmont. 
Perry  Belmont. 
J.   G.   Bennett. 
Marquis  Du  Bourg. 
Frederic  Bronson.     D. 

COMTE    DE    CARCARADEC. 

Henry  R.  A.   Carey.     D. 
A.   J.   Cassatt. 
William  P.   Douglas. 
George  P.   Eustis. 
William  C.   Eustis. 
Captain  Pryce  Hamilton. 
T.   A.   Hayemeyer.     D. 
Eugene  Higgins. 
.  C.   Oliver  Iselin. 


William  Jay. 
Delancy  A.   Kane. 
De  La  Haye  Jousselin. 
Vicomte    de    La    Rochefou- 
cauld. 
Prescott  Lawrence. 
Baron  Lejeune. 
donatien  levesque. 
Forbes  Morgan. 
Henry  Ridgway. 
Reginald  W.   Rives. 
Fairman  Rogers. 
J.   R.   Roosevelt. 
F.   K.  Sturgis. 
William  G.   Tiffany. 
William   K.   Vanderbilt. 
George  Peabody  Wetmore. 


The  rules  and  customs  of  the  Meets  of  Coaching 
Clubs  are  simple,  and  adopted  principally  with  the 
view  of  ensuring  a  certain  uniformity. 

At  the  Meets  of  the  Coaching  Club  in  New  York, 
the  coaches  take  a  front  load  only  ;  the  wife  of  the 
owner,  if  he  has  one,  takes  the  box-seat  ;  there  are 
two  ladies  and  two  men  on  the  front  roof-seat,  the 
back  of  the  hind  roof-seat  is  turned  down,  and  the 
two  grooms  are  in  the  rumble.     These  rules  are  not 


CH.   XXIV  MEETS    OF    COACHING    CLUBS  5  1 3 

observed  by  the  London  Clubs,  where  either  a  front 
load  or  a  full  load  is  carried.  In  the  case  of  mourn- 
ing, when  the  wife  of  a  member  does  not,  for  that 
reason,  wish  to  appear  at  the  Meet,  a  lady  takes  her 
place,  or  the  load  is  made  up  of  men  only. 

The  only  occasion  on  which  the  wife  of  the  owner, 
if  she  is  on  the  coach  at  all,  is  not  on  the  box-seat, 
is  when  a  very  distinguished  personage,  such  as 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  takes  that  seat 
on  the  leading-  coach. 

If  the  owner  is  unmarried,  the  lady  on  the  box  is 
usually  one  of  his  own  family. 

The  owner  and  his  servants  usually  wear  bouton- 
nieres  of  the  same  variety  as  the  flowers  in  the 
horses'  heads.  There  are  no  lamps  on  the  coaches, 
and  the  grooms'  overcoats  are  not  on  the  rumble 
but,  if  carried  at  all,  are  inside  the  coach.  The 
stable  shutters  are  down  (that  is,  open),  and  the 
glass  windows  either  up  or  down. 

The  owner  wears  the  uniform  of  the  Club  and  a 
black  silk  hat,  as  do  all  the  men  on  the  coach. 
Some  years  ago,  it  was  considered  de  rigneur  for 
ladies  to  wear  bonnets,  but  hats  have  become  so 
general  as  to  be  considered  correct  even  on  a  coach. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  every  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  proper  turning  out  of  the 
coach  and  to  the  dress  and  attitude  of  the  servants. 

At  a  Meet  of  private  drags,  two  servants  in  livery 
should  be  on  the  coach  ;  never  a  servant  in  the 
dress  of  a  guard,  as  is  sometimes  seen  in  Paris. 

33 


514  MEETS    OF    COACHING    CLUBS  CH.   XXIV 

The  time  of  assembling,  by  which  time  all  the 
coaches  should  be  on  the  ground,  is  usually  fifteen 
minutes  before  the  hour  of  starting.  The  coaches 
take  their  places  in  the  order  of  arrival,  either  in 
one  or  two  lines  or  in  a  single  column,  depending 
upon  the  locality.  One  place  at  the  right,  or  at  the 
head,  is  left  for  the  President  of  the  Club,  and  the 
Vice-President  takes  the  rear.  Inasmuch  as  punc- 
tuality is  a  coaching  virtue,  the  start  should  be  made 
on  the  minute  by  the  President,  and  the  coaches 
should  follow  at  intervals  of  a  coach  length  ;  that  is, 
about  forty  feet.  These  intervals  should  be  kept 
with  great  precision,  since,  if  they  are  alternately 
lost  and  regained,  the  changes  of  pace  will  be  much 
increased  toward  the  rear  of  the  column,  where  the 
coaches  will  be  frequently  compelled  to  go  very 
fast,  to  make  up  the  gaps.  It  is  a  good  plan  for 
the  leading  coach,  ten  minutes  or  so  after  the  start, 
to  stop  for  a  few  minutes  at  the  first  convenient 
place  ;  the  horses  are  very  apt  to  get  fretted  by  the 
waiting  and  by  the  start,  and  an  opportunity  is 
hereby  afforded  of  calming  them  and  of  changing 
the  couplings  or  the  bitting,  if  desirable. 

The  pace  should  not  be  slow  ;  eight  miles  an  hour 
is  not  too  fast,  and  an  even  pace  should  be  kept  up 
all  the  time,  up-hill  and  down  ;  this  ensures  the  in- 
tervals between  the  coaches  being  properly  kept, 
even  if  the  line  is  long-. 

If  the  route  chosen  permits,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
countermarch  at  some    place,  around  a  circle  in  a 


CH.  XXIV  MEETS    OF    COACHING    CLUBS  515 

park,  for  instance  ;  so  that  the  members  may  see 
each  other's  coaches  ;  if  this  cannot  be  arranged, 
a  manoeuvre  adopted  some  years  ago  by  The  New 
York  Coaching  Club  serves  nearly  the  same  pur- 
pose. At  an  appointed  spot,  the  leading  coach, 
and  of  course  the  whole  column,  halts  on  the  rio-ht- 

o 

hand  side  of  the  road  ;  the  rear  coach  then  drives 
out,  passing  to  the  left  of  the  column  and  takes  up 
its  place  at  the  head  ;  the  coach  which  has  now 
become  the  rear  one  does  the  same,  and  they 
all  make  the  movement  in  succession,  until  the  Presi- 
dent, in  so  doing,  resumes  his  original  leading  posi- 
tion and  then  continues  the  drive.  At  times,  the 
drive  occupies  an  hour  or  so,  and  the  coaches  return 
to  the  point  of  departure  and  there  separate  ;  at 
other  times  the  coaches  go  to  some  out-of-town  place 
for  lunch  or  for  dinner,  and  return  independently. 

The  latter  is  the  custom  usually  followed  at  the 
Meets  of  both  the  London  Clubs  ;  in  Paris,  the 
coaches,  after  meeting  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
drive  out  together  to  La  Marche  or  to  the  Auteuil 
races,  and  come  home  independently. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Coaching  Club  in  New 
York  the  Meet  took  place  late  in  the  afternoon,  and 
after  a  drive  over  the  whole  length  of  the  Park,  the 
members  and  their  guests  returned  to  the  Bruns- 
wick Hotel  for  a  formal  dinner.  In  the  last  few 
years,  the  Meets  have  been  earlier  in  the  day,  with 
a  drive  to  Clermont  for  lunch. 

Where    there    are    Coaching    Clubs,   it    is    usual, 


51 6  MEETS    OF    COACHES  CH.   XXIV 

on  certain  race-courses,  to  have  places  specially  set 
apart  for  coaches,  those  for  the  Clubs  separated  from 
those  for  other  coaches.  At  Jerome  Park,  in  the  old 
race  days,  the  grassy  slope  at  the  foot  of  the  Club 
House  was  reserved  for  coaches,  and  was  a  gay  point 
of  rendezvous  on  that  most  beautiful  of  courses. 

On  several  Entrlish  courses  each  Club  has  its 
special  enclosure,  opposite  the  Grand  Stand,  and 
the  penalty  attached  to  a  non-appearance  at  the 
established  Meets  of  the  Club  is  exclusion  from  this 
enclosure.  Eighty  or  ninety  coaches,  including 
those  of  the  Clubs,  are  often  drawn  up  in  a  line, 
opposite  the  Grand  Stand,  at  Ascot. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  disposition  of  a  coach  on  a 
race-course  or  at  any  other  gathering,  such  as  a 
horse-show,  a  cricket-match  or  polo-match,  will  not 
be  out  of  place  here. 

The  coach  should  be  driven  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  its  place,  the  leaders  occupying  the  spot  on  which 
the  coach  is  finally  to  stand  ;  the  leaders'  traces 
are  unhooked,  the  AW-reins  thrown  down,  and  the 
leaders  moved  out  of  the  way.  The  bars  are  taken 
off  of  the  pole-head  and  laid  on  the  ground  at  one 
side,  and  the  coach  is  drawn  forward  as  far  as  pos- 
sible by  the  wheelers  ;  the  pole-chains  are  slackened, 
the  wheel-traces  taken  off  of  the  roller-bolts  and  the 
wheel-reins  thrown  down.  The  chains  are  unhooked 
from  the  kidney-link  rings,  one  end  being  left  hooked 
to  the  pole-head,  the  pole  is  withdrawn  and  the  wheel 


> 

X 
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CH.  XXIV  MEETS    OE    COACHES  5 1 7 

horses  led  out  of  the  way.  The  coach  is  then  run 
forward  to  its  place  by  hand,  the  grooms  of  other 
coaches  usually  assisting,  until  it  is  as  close  to  the 
rails  or  rope  of  the  enclosure  as  is  desired.  On  sod, 
or  on  ground  which  is  known  to  be  soft,  it  is  well  to 
have,  in  the  coach,  four  small  pieces  of  board,  which 
can  be  quickly  laid  down  in  front  of  each  wheel  be- 
fore the  coach  is  brought  to  its  final  position  ;  the 
wheels  run  on  these  boards  and  are  thereby  pre- 
vented from  sinking  in  the  ground,  which,  from  the 
movement  caused  by  those  who  get  up  and  down  on 
the  coach,  they  will  be  likely  to  do,  with  the  result 
that  it  will  be  difficult  to  move  the  wheels  out  of  these 
deep  ruts  when  the  time  comes  to  start  for  home. 

While  one  man  holds  the  horses,  the  other  one 
pushes  the  pole  under  the  centre  of  the  coach,  so 
that  its  point  comes  under  the  splinter-bar  ;  then, 
hooking  the  chains  together,  he  hangs  up  the  head 
of  the  pole  by  passing  the  chains  over  the  roller- 
bolts,  and  lays  the  lead-bars  on  top  of  the  splinter- 
bar,  as  shown  in  Plate  XXXIV.  He  then  takes 
the  halters  and  horse  clothing  out  of  the  front  boot 
and  assists  the  other  man  in  leading  the  horses  to 
where  they  are  to  be  put  up. 

Even  for  a  short  stop  at  a  race  or  at  a  game,  it  is 
dangerous  to  keep  the  horses  attached  to  the  coach  ; 
people  become  interested  in  the  spectacle  ;  the 
grooms  often  forget  themselves,  and  if  the  horses 
start  suddenly,  any  one  standing  erect  on  the  coach 
is  liable  to  be  thrown  off  with  serious  injury. 


5i8 


MEETS    OF    COACHES 


CH.  XXIV 


The    same    is    true,    of   course,    of   any    vehicle, 
under    similar    circumstances,    and    I    once     saw    a 

woman,  who  was   standing  on  the 

seat  of  a  buggy,  thrown  off  by  the 

k=~J      sudden  start  of   the    horse    as  the 

<*    o      racing  horses  passed,  receiving  in- 

j)     juries  which  caused  her  death  in  a 

few  hours. 

After  the  coach  has  been  pushed 
to  its  place,  the  coachman  puts  on 
the  brake  as  hard  as  possible,  and, 
taking  three  or  four  loops  of  the 
bight  of  his  whip  thong,  round  the 
stick  at  the  ferrule,  he  hangs  the 
whip  on  the  handle  of  the  brake, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  i  74. 

The  whip  may  be  strapped  along 
the  pole,  instead  of  hanging  it  as 
just  described,  but  this  is  a  more 
troublesome  way  of  disposing  of 
it.  It  must  not,  under  any  circum- 
stances, be  put  into  the  whip  socket, 
where  it  will  be  not  only  in  the  way 
but  almost  certainly  broken. 

If  at  the  termination  of  a  meet- 
ing, the  rope  or  rail  in  front  of  the 
coaches  is  taken  down,  it  is  neces- 
sary only  to  put  the  horses  to,  and 
Fig.  174.  ,  .  .    ,  Tr    .  • 

to  drive  straight  out.     11  this  can- 
not be  done,   the  coach  must    be    backed  by  hand 


c; 


CH.   XXIV  MEETS    OF    COACHES  519 

and  turned  into  a  position  which  will  allow  the  horses 
to  be  put-to  ;  it  is  well  to  drill  the  men  in  doing  this, 
so  that  the  coach  can  be  brought  into  position  with- 
out any  awkward  failures. 

Starting  off  from  a  race-course  requires  much 
judgement,  and  few  things  show  more  clearly  the 
good  or  bad  coachman.  The  horses  after  standing, 
are  often  somewhat  fractious  and  impatient ;  other 
coaches  about  them  are  just  getting  of,  and  unless 
the  coachman  does  the  proper  thing  he  is  likely  to 
o-et  into  trouble.  He  must  be  certain  before  he 
starts  that  he  has  his  reins  exactly  right  and  that 
all  his  horses  tighten  their  traces  together,  for,  on 
the  soft  ground,  it  usually  takes  all  four  to  pull  the 
coach.  If  they  make  a  false  start  without  moving 
the  coach,  they  will  be  likely  to  balk  or  run  back, 
and  then  a  good  start  is  almost  impossible. 

Everything  should  be  done  in  the  most  quiet 
manner  ;  the  brake  must  be  taken  off  without  any 
noise,  the  man  at  the  leaders'  heads  must  draw 
the  horses  gently  forward  without  exciting  or  jerk- 
ing them,  in  order  to  tighten  their  traces,  keeping 
his  eye  steadily  on  the  coachman  so  as  to  obey  any 
signal  promptly.  If  all  this  is  properly  done,  the 
team  will  get  into  motion  smoothly  and  quickly,  and 
they  should  be  permitted  to  go  straight  on,  to  give 
them  no  chance  to  rebel.  If  it  is  not  properly  done, 
one  leader  will  be  on  his  hind  le^s  and  the  other 
turning  his  croup  out  sideways,  while  a  wheeler  will 
be  hanging  back  with  his  collar  half-way  up  to  his  ears. 


520  RULES    FOR   JUDGING  CH.  XXIV 

It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  a  start 
should  not  be  made  unless  there  is  room  to  eo 
somewhere,  but  one  often  sees  an  inexperienced 
coachman  try  it,  with  awkward  results. 

Judging  at  Horse-Shows. — It  has  become  the 
custom  at  Horse-Shows  to  make  classes  for  Har- 
ness Horses,  which  classes  include  the  vehicles  to 
which  the  horses  are  shown,  together  with  the  har- 
ness and  liveries  ;  these  appointments,  as  they  are 
usually  termed,  count  for  fifty  per  cent,  and  the 
horses  for  fifty  per  cent.,  in  making  up  the  number 
of  points  for  the  award.  The  Coaching  Club  in 
New  York  has  formulated,  as  suo-o-estions  to  Judges 

OO  J  O 

and  Exhibitors,  certain  Rules  for  Judging,  which  are 
here  reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Club.  These 
Rules  will  be  found  to  agree  with  the  descriptions 
of  coaches  and  harness  given  in  the  earlier  pages 
of  this  book,  and,  being  a  codification  of  the  best 
practice  among  coaching  men,  may  be  taken  as  a 
guide  for  turning  out  a  coach  properly. 

The  Rules  are  printed  in  double  column,  for  con- 
venience in  comparing  drags  and  public-coaches  : — 

The  Drag.  The  Coach. 

The  Drag  should  have  a  perch  The  Road-Coach  should  be 
and  be  less  heavy  than  a  Road-  built  stronger  than  a  Park  Drag, 
Coach  and  more  highly  finished,  especially  as  to  the  under-carriage 
with  crest  or  monogram  on  the  and  axles,  which  latter  should  not 
door  panels  or  hind  boot.  measure  less  than  two  inches  in 

diameter. 


CH.   XXIV 


RULES    FOR    JUDGING 


521 


The  Drag — (continued'). 

The  axles  may  be  either  Mail 
or  Collinges  (not  imitation). 


The  Coach — (continued'). 

The  axles  may  be  either  Mail 
or  Collinges  (not  imitation). 


The  hind  seat  should  be  sup-  The  hind  seat  is  usually  sup- 
ported by  curved  iron  braces,  ported  by  solid  wooden  risers 
and  be  of  a  proper  width  for  two  with  wooden  curtain,  but  the  sup- 
grooms,  without  lazy-back.  ports  may  be  of  curved  iron,   as 

in  a  Park  Drag,  in  which  case 
a  stationary  leather  curtain  is 
used.  Its  seat  should  be  wide 
enough  for  at  least  two  besides 
the  guard,  who  should  occupy 
the  near  side,  with  an  extra 
cushion.  He  should  have  a  strap 
to  take  hold  of  when  standing  to 
sound  the  horn. 

The  lazy-backs  on  the  roof-  The  lazy-backs  of  the  box-seat, 
seats  should  be  turned  down  hind  seat,  and  roof-seats  should 
when  not  in  use.  be  stationary. 

The  under  side  of  the  foot-  The  under  side  of  the  foot- 
board, together  with  the  risers,  board,  together  with  the  risers  of 
should  be  of  the  same  colour  as  the  box  and  hind  seat,  should  be 
the  under-carriage.  of  the  same  colour  as  the  under- 

carriage. 

The  body  of  the  Drag  and  the  The  body  of  the  Coach  and  the 
panel  of  the  hind  boot  should  cor-  panel  of  the  hind  boot  should 
respond  in  colour.  also  correspond  in  colour. 


The  door  of  the  hind  boot 
should  be  hinged  at  the  bottom, 
that  it  may  be  used  as  a  table 
when  open. 


The  door  of  the  hind  boot 
should  be  hinged  on  the  off  side 
to  enable  the  guard  to  open  it 
from  the  near  hind  step  when  the 
Coach  is  in  motion. 


522 


RULES    FOR   JUDGING 


CH.   XXIV 


The  Drag — {continued). 


The  Coach — (continued). 


The  skid  and  safety  hook  (if  The  skid  and  safety  hook  must 
carried)  should  be  hung  on  the  be  hung  on  the  off  side  in  coun- 
off  side.  tries  in  which  it  is  customary  to 

drive  on  the  off  side  of  the  road- 
way, for  the  skid  should  be  on 
the  outside  wheel,  or  the  Coach 
will  slide  toward  the  ditch. 


It  is  customary  to  trim  the  out- 
side seats  in  either  pigskin  or 
cloth,  and  the  inside  of  the  Drag 
in  morocco  or  cloth. 


The  coachman's  driving-apron 
when  not  in  use  should  be  folded 
on  the  driving-cushion,  outside 
out.  Passengers' aprons  if  carried 
to  be  neatly  folded  and  placed  on 
the  front  inside  seat. 

A  watch  and  case  are  not 
essential,  nor  is  the  pocket  in  the 
driving-cushion. 

There  should  be  no  luggage 
rails  or  straps  on  the  roof  between 
the  seats. 


Inside,  the  Drag  should  have  : 
Hat  straps  fastened  to  the  roof ; 
pockets  on  the  doors  ;  places 
over  the  front  or  back  seat  where 
the  lamps  may  be  hung  when  not 
in  use  ;   an  extra,  jointed  whip. 


The  trimming  of  the  outside 
seats  should  be  of  carpet  or  any 
suitable  material,  not  leather. 
The  inside  of  the  Coach  is  usually 
finished  in  hard  wood  or  leather. 

The  coachman's  driving-apron 
when  not  in  use  should  be  folded 
on  the  driving-cushion,  outside 
out. 


A  foot-board  watch  with  case 
should  be  provided.  The  driving- 
cushion  should  have  a  pocket  on 
the  near  side. 

The  iron  rails  on  the  roof  be- 
tween the  front  and  back  seats 
should  have  a  lattice  or  net-work 
of  leather  straps  to  prevent  small 
luggage,  coats,  rugs,  etc.,  placed 
on  the  roof  from  falling  off. 

Inside,  the  Coach  should  have  : 
Hat  straps  fastened  to  the  roof; 
leather  pockets  at  the  sides  or 
on  the  doors  ;  an  extra,  jointed 
whip. 


CH.   XXIV 


RULES    FOR   JUDGING 


523 


The  Drag — {continued).  The  Coach — {continued). 

The     umbrella    basket,     when  The  basket  shall  be  hung  on 

carried,  should  be  hung  on  the  the  near  side  and  in  front  of  the 
near  side.  guard's    seat.      The  horn  should 

be  placed  in  the  basket  with  the 

mouth-piece  up. 

Two  extra  lead-bars,  consist-  Two  extra  lead-bars,  consist- 
ing of  a  main-bar  and  a  side-bar,  ing  of  a  main-bar  and  a  side-bar, 
fastened  to  the  back  of  the  hind  fastened  to  the  back  of  the  hind 
seat  with  straps  ;  main-bar  above,  seat  with  straps  ;  main-bar  above. 

Lead-bars    put    on  with    screw  Lead-bars    put    on   with    screw 

heads  of  furniture  up.  heads  of  furniture  up. 


The  following  articles  to  be 
neatly  stowed  in  a  convenient  part 
of  the  Coach  :  A  wheel  jack,  extra 
hame-straps,  a  chain-trace,  extra 
lead-trace,  an  extra  bit,  a  bearing- 
rein,  a  rein  splicer  (a  short  strap 
of  the  same  width  as  the  reins, 
with  a  buckle  at  either  end)  or 
two  double  buckles  of  different 
sizes,  a  kit  of  tools,  comprising 
a  wrench,  hammer,  cold  chisel, 
coil  of  wire,  punch,  hoof-pick  and 
knife.  Two  extra,  large  rings  for 
kidney-links,  or  a  pair  of  pole- 
pieces. 

It  is  usual  for  a  Park  Drag  to  The  guard  should  be  appro- 
be  fitted  with  luncheon  boxes,  priately  dressed,  and  should  have 
wine  racks,  &c,  also  with  a  box  a  way-bill  pouch  with  a  watch 
on  the  roof  called  an  "  Imperial."  fitted  on  one  side  and  a  place 
This  latter  is  never  carried  ex-  provided  for  the  key  of  the  hind 
cept  when  going  to  the  races  or  boot, 
a  luncheon. 


The  following  articles  to  be 
neatly  stowed  inside  the  front 
boot  :  A  small  kit  of  tools,  an 
extra  lead-trace  and  wheel-trace, 
a  rein  splicer  or  two  double 
buckles  of  different  sizes,  extra 
hame-straps. 

Loin  cloths  for  team,  and  the 
necessary  waterproof  aprons, 
should  be  carried  in  a  convenient 
and  accessible  part  of  the  Drag. 


524 


RULES    FOR   JUDGING 


CH.   XXIV 


The  Drag — (continued).  The  Coach — (continued). 

Lamps     off.        Lamps     inside         Side  lamps  in  place  and  ready 


coach. 


for  use. 


Park  Harness. 

Pole-chains  should  be  bur- 
nished and  have  spring  hooks. 
The  chains  should  be  of  a  length 
which  will  admit  of  snapping 
both  hooks  into  the  pole-head 
ring.  If  too  short,  one  end 
should  be  hooked  in  the  pole- 
head  ring  and  the  other  in  a 
link.  If  too  long,  one  end 
should  be  snapped  in  the  pole- 
head  ring,  and  the  other  brought 
through  said  ring  (from  the  out- 
side in)  and  snapped  in  a  link. 


Road  Harness. 

Pole-chains  should  be  bur- 
nished or  black,  but  pole-head 
and  chains  must  be  alike.  Hooks 
should  have  india-rubber  rings, 
not  spring  hooks.  Chains  with 
single  hooks  should  be  put  on 
pole-head  from  inside,  out  ;  then 
passed  through  the  kidney-link 
and  hooked  into  one  of  the  links 
of  the  chain. 


Cruppers,  with  buckles,  on  all 
horses  preferred. 


Cruppers,  with  or  without 
buckles,  on  wheelers,  but  not 
necessarily  on  leaders,  unless 
bearing-reins  are  used.  Martin- 
gale back-strap.  Trace-bearers 
on  the  leaders  from  the  hames  to 
the  tug-buckles  are  permissible. 


Loin-straps    and    trace-bearers 
are  permissible. 


Xo  loin-straps. 


Face-pieces  (drops). 


Face-pieces  (optional). 


Martingales  around  the  collars  Martingales  around  the  collars 
of  wheelers  and  not  through  kid-  and  not  through  kidney-links 
nev-links  alone.  alone. 


CH.   XXIV 


RULES    FOR   JUDGING 


525 


Park  Harness — {continued). 
Martingales  on  all  horses. 

No  rings  on  coupling-reins. 


Road  Harness — (continued). 

No    martingales    on     leaders  ; 
kidney -link  rings  on  leaders. 


Mountings  of   coach  and   har-  Mountings,  preferably  of  brass, 

ness  and  the  buttons  on  servants'  but  at  least  all  of  the  same  metal 

liveries    should    be    of  the    same  throughout. 
metal. 


Wheel-traces  with  metal    loop 
ends,  not  chains. 


Wheel-traces  with  French  loop 
or  chain  ends.  Chain  put  on 
roller-bolt  with  chain  out  and 
ring  in. 


Wheelers'  inside  traces  shorter  Wheelers'  inside  traces  shorter 

than    outside    traces,    unless    the  than    outside    traces,   unless    the 

inside    roller-bolt  is  enlarged    to  inside    roller-bolt  is    enlarged    to 
give  the  same  result. 

Lead-traces  straight  or  lapped, 
not  crossed. 

Eyes  on  ends  of  names  through 
which  the  kidney-links  pass. 

Plain  kidney-links.  No  kid- 
ney-link rings  on  leaders. 

Solid  draught-eyes  on  names. 
Clip  inside  of  trace  leather,  and 
showing  rivet  heads  only. 


give  the  same  result. 


Lead-traces  lapped,  crossed,  or 
straight. 

Hook  ends  to  names. 


Chain  and    short   kidney-links 
or  all  chain. 

Ring  draught-eyes  on  hames. 


Full  bearing-reins,  with  bit  and  One  or  more  bearing-reins  are 

bridoon.      Buxton  bits  preferred,  optional. 

Single  point  strap  to  tug-buckle. 

Metal     or     ribbon     fronts     to  Metal     or     leather     fronts    to 

bridles  ;     if    ribbon,     the    colour  bridles  ;  if  leather,  the  colour    to 

should    match    the    livery    waist-  match  the  colour  of  the  coach, 
coats. 


526                                 RULES    FOR   JUDGING  CH.  XXIV 

Park  Harness — {continued').  Road  Harness — {continued"). 

The  crest  or  monogram  should  A    crest    or  monogram    is    not 

be    on    the    rosettes,   face-pieces,  generally  used  in  road  work,  but 

winkers,     pads,     and     martingale  instead,    lead-bars,    or  a    special 

flaps.      Ribbon    or    coloured    10-  device  in  brass,   are    put  on  the 

settes  are  inappropriate.  winkers  and  rosettes. 

Hames-straps  put  on  with  the  Hames-straps  put  on  with  the 

points  inside, — i.e.,  to  the  off  side  points  inside, — i.e.,  to  the  off  side 

on  the  near  horse  and  the  near  on   the  near  horse  and  the  near 

side  on  the  off  horse.  side  on  the  off  horse. 

Reins  of  single  brown  leather.  Reins  of    single  brown  leather. 

Draught-reins     sewed     in     one  Draught-reins     sewed     in     one 

piece,  with  end  buckles  only.  piece,  with  end  buckles  only. 

Lead-traces    with    screw  heads  Traces    with    screw    heads    of 

of  the  cock-eyes  up.  cock-eyes  and  chain  ends,  up. 

All  parts  of  the  harness  should  All  straps  preferably  of  single 

be  double  and  neatly  stitched.  leather. 

Collars  to    be  of   black  patent  Collars  may  be  of  patent,  plain 

leather,  shaped  to  the  neck.  black,  or  brown  leather  ;  straight, 

thick,  and  full  padded. 

The     hames    bent     to    tit    the  The   names    straight  to  fit  the 

collar  accurately.  collar. 

Harness     black.       All     straps  Harness  black  or  brown, 
should  be  of  proper  length,   but 
not  too  short. 

When  the  owner  or  his  repre- 
sentative drives,  the  stable-shut- 
ters should  be  down  ;  otherwise 
up. 


CH.  XXIV  DRIVING    COMPETITIONS  527 

Driving  Competitions. — Driving  competitions 
are  frequently  arranged  with  the  view  of  deciding 
which  of  the  contestants  has  the  best  seat  on  the 
box,  the  best  method  of  handling  the  reins  and 
whip,  and  the  best  general  style  of  driving,  while 
merely  going  over  a  simple  course  ;  or  an  intricate 
course,  with  obstacles,  may  be  laid  out  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  the  skill  of  the  coachman.  In 
the  first  case,  a  figure-of-eight  may  be  added  to  the 
simple  course ;  a  moderately  high  rate  of  speed 
should  be  required. 

At  the  Philadelphia  Horse-Show  of  1893,  the 
course  was  laid  out  as  in  Fig.  175. 


•1 


4»f»  »>3 


<~  Start 


\\ 


1 ! 
1 1 


t  \ 


Fig.  175. 

Blocks,  10  inches  square  and  36  inches  high,  were 
placed  in  pairs,  with  a  space  of  8j4  feet  between 
the  blocks,  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  and  4.  The  coaches, 
stationed  on  the  short  sides  of  the  ground,  were 
twice  driven,  one  by  one,  at  a  sharp  trot,  through 
each  pair  of  blocks,  following  the  course  shown  by 
the  dotted  line,  thus  twice  making  a  figure-of-eight ; 
finishing  at  the  point  marked  by  the  star.  Striking 
a  block  was  counted  against  a  contestant,  but  the 


528 


DRIVING    COMPETITIONS 


CH.   XXIV 


t; 


f 


style  of  driving  and  the  accuracy  of  the  turns  were 

mainly   considered.      The   ground   was  300   feet   in 

length  and    125   feet  in  width,  so  that 

the  turns  were   portions   of  circles   of 

about  100  feet  in  diameter. 

For  an  obstacle  course,  the  follow- 
ing is  a  good  arrangement :  Barrels, 
painted  a  light  colour,  are  placed  (as 
shown  in  Fig.  176)  8  feet  apart  in  one 
direction  and  50  feet  apart  in  the  other, 
the  coach  being  driven  between  them 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  line.  After 
passing  through  the  last  pair  of 
barrels,  a  turn  is  made  to  the  left 
and  the  coach  is  driven  in  a  straight 
line  between  two  rows  of  stakes  7 
feet  apart,  the  pairs  of  stakes  cor- 
responding to  the  pairs  of  barrels. 
With  seven  pairs  of  barrels,  the 
whole  space  required  for  the  course 
will  be  about  600  feet  in  length  by 
120  feet  in  width.  On  a  course  of  this  length. 
two  minutes  is  the  time  allowed  for  driving  up 
one  side  and  down  the  other,  the  time  being  taken 
from  the  moment  of  starting  at  the  word  'go,' 
from  a  line  75  feet  in  advance  of  the  first  pair 
of  barrels,  to  crossing  the  same  line  after  having 
passed  through  the  stakes. 

In  counting  the  points  to  the  credit  of  each  com- 
petitor, a  number  is  adopted,  for  example  30  ;  from 


P 


Fig.  176. 


CH.  XXIV 


DRIVING    COMPETITIONS 


529 


this  number  are  deducted  two  points  for  each  barrel 
or  stake  touched,  and  one  point  for  each  15  seconds, 
or  part  thereof,  above  the  two  minutes  ;  for  each 
15  seconds,  or  part  thereof,  less  than  the  two  min- 
utes, one  point  is  added.  Four  points  are  deducted 
for  going  outside  of  a  barrel  or  stake,  and  four 
points  are  deducted  should  a  groom  touch  the 
horses. 

The  following    is    the  form  in  which  the  judges' 
card  may  be  made  : — 


Competitors 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

Time                     .    . 

2. 10 

2.30 

3 

1.48 
0 

1  55 

2 

1.36 
4 

2.00 

1 

I 

Stakes  touched 

2 

3 

3 

0 

6 

3 

Outside 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Groom  touching  horses  .    .    . 

1 
—  1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

— 2 

+  1 

+  1 

+  2 

0 

—6 

— 12 

—6 

—4 

— 20 

—8 

Points  to  be  deducted  from  30 
Result 

—4 

—4 

—  1 1 

—18 

-5 

—3 

—18 

—8 

19 

12 

25 

27 

12 

22 

In  this  example,  competitor  D  having  the  greatest 
number  of  points  to  his  credit,  is  the  winner. 

The  foregoing  are  the  Rules  for  the  Driving  Com- 
petitions at  The  Ranelagh  Club,  London.  There, 
after  passing  through  the  barrels,  the  turn  is  made 
to  the  right  in  accordance  with  the  English  custom 
of  driving  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  road. 

At  one  of  the  Open-Air  Horse-Shows  in  New 
York,  a  pen  of  hurdles  was  arranged  as  in  Fig.  177. 

34 


_^V."""i*—  A 

d     _:: 

\  X  -'' 

c- 

\ '    1 1 

'       i 

JB 

53O  DRIVING    COMPETITIONS  CH.   XXIV 

The  coach  is  to  be  driven  in  from  A  in  the  di- 
rection shown  by  the  arrow,  passing  the  barrel  C  ; 

then  backed  into 
the  space  between 
B  and  C  until  the 
horses  could  be 
turned  to  the  right 
and  finally  driven 
out  toward  A  in 
the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  it  entered. 
The  fences,  between  A  and  D,  are  22  feet  apart, 
and  the  barrels  B  and  C  are  22  feet  apart.  The 
hurdle  at  D  should  be  moveable,  to  permit  a  coach- 
man who  is  unsuccessful  in  backing  round,  to  drive 
out  at  that  end. 

In  all  Driving  Competitions,  especially  when  the 
turns  to  be  made  are  sharp,  the  vehicles  used  should 
have  nearly  the  same  angle  of  lock  ;  a  coachman 
driving  a  break,  the  front  wheels  of  which  turn  far 
under,  has  a  great  advantage  in  being-  able  to  make 
a  sharp  turn  without  risk  of  an  accident ;  breaks 
should  not  therefore  be  admitted  to  a  competition 
with  coaches. 


COACH  CALLS  ON  THE  HORN 


Get  Ready. 


The  Start. 


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-**- 


f 


Short  Call. 

A A 


Short  Call. 


A         A         rr\  /    ^.    ^. 


CH.  XXV  531 


CHAPTER   XXV 

MUSIC    FOR   THE    HORN 

In  this  Chapter  are  given  the  most  useful  calls 
for  the  Coach-Horn,  together  with  three  airs  adapted 
to  that  instrument. 

Since  the  ordinary,  straight  coach-horn  (Pig.  178) 
has  no  keys,  only  the  six  open  notes  C,  G,  C,  E,  G, 
C,  can  be  sounded  on  it ;  these  notes  are  written  in 


Fig.   178. 

the  key  of  C,  the  first  note  in  the  list  being  the  C 
below  the  stave.  The  high  C,  with  which  the  l  post- 
horn  call'  ends,  is  difficult  to  produce. 

The  actual  pitch  of  the  notes  sounded  when  any 
call  is  played,  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  horn  ; 
a  horn  with  a  length  of  about  39  inches,  including 
the  mouth-piece,  will  give  the  sound  of  E  flat  when 
what  is  written  as  C  is  sounded ;  one  of  about 
52  inches  in  length  will  give  B  flat,  the  pitch  of  a 
cornet. 

The  shorter  the  horn,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to 
play,  but  the  more  brilliant  are  the  calls  ;  the  longer 
horn  has  a  softer  tone.  A  horn  42  inches  in  length 
has  an  agreeable  pitch.     A  horn   54  or  56  inches  in 


532  HORN  CH.  XXV 

length  may  be  reduced  to  the  more  convenient 
length  of  24  or  25  inches  by  being  doubled  on 
itself ;  its  tone  is  not  materially  changed. 

A  horn  made  of  hard  brass  has  a  better  tone 
than  one  made  of  copper,  and  the  '  cornet'  bell  is 
thought  to  give  a  sweeter  tone  than  the  conical  or 
'  bugle'  bell.  Ribs  of  brass  or  of  german-silver 
are  sometimes  soldered  lengthwise  on  the  horn  to 
strengthen  it. 

Old  coaching  books  speak  of  'the  yard  of  tin,' 
meaning  the  horn  ;  a  horn  made  of  tin  and  only 
36  inches  long  could  not  have  been  a  very  musical 
instrument. 

On  some  coaches,  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, the  guard  used  a  key  bugle  instead  of  a  horn. 
'Paddy  Blake'  {New  Sporting  Magazine,  1834, 
p.  102)  speaks  of  a  coachman's  having  a  horn  in 
his  pocket. 

Owing  to  the  limited  number  of  its  notes,  few  of 
the  well-known  tunes  can  be  played  on  the  coach- 
horn,  but  the  calls  can  be  varied  indefinitely. 

Much  practice  is  necessary  to  enable  a  person  to 
play  the  horn  well  ;  useful  hints  and  useful  exercises 
are  contained  in  the  three  little  books  by  Godden, 
by  Kohler,  and  by  Yixov,  the  full  titles  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  '  List  of  Books'  in  the  present 
volume. 


ch.  xxvi  533 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

COACHING  MEDALS  OR  TOKENS. 

Two  medals  or  tokens  are  mentioned-  in  the 
Coaching  books  ;  photographic  reproductions  of 
them  are  here  given. 

The  first  (Fig.  179,  Plate  XXXV.),  known  as  the 
'mail-coach  halfpenny,'  was  struck  soon  after  the 
introduction  of  the  mail-coaches. 

It  has  upon  the  face  a  mail-coach,  with  coachman 
and  guard,  and  four  horses  galloping  ;  above,  '  mail 

COACH      HALFPENNY,'     below     'TO     TRADE      EXPEDITION 
&     TO     PROPERTY    PROTECTION.       PAYABLE     IN     LONDON.' 

On  the  reverse,  '  to  j.  palmer  esq.  this  is  inscribed 

AS  A  TOKEN    OF    GRATITUDE    FOR    BENEFITS    REC'd    FROM 
THE    ESTABLISHMENT  OF   MAIL  COACHES,'   with  3.  wreath 

of  palm  leaves  and  the  letters  QJ ,  c/\ 

The  second  (Fig.  180)  is  a  copper  halfpenny 
struck  by  William  Waterhouse,  a  coaching  pro- 
prietor, whose  headquarters  were,  about  172 2-1 800,. 
at  the  Swan  with  Two  Necks, *  Lad  Lane,  London. 

It  has,  upon  the  face,  a  swan  with  two  necks 
turned    in  opposite  directions  ;  above,    '  payable  at 

THE    MAIL    COACH    OFFICE,'    below,    '  LAD    LANE    LONDON 

*  It  is  the  custom  for  the  owners  of  swans  to  mark  them  by 
one  or  more  '  nicks'  on  their  beaks  ;  the  name  of  the  tavern  is  no 
doubt  a  corruption  of  '  The  Swan  with  two  nicks.' 


534  COACHING    MEDALS  CH.  XXVI 

w.  w.,'  on  the  reverse,  a  coach  with  four  horses,  and 
the  Wend  '  speed  regularity  &  security.' 

After  a  thorough  search  I  have  failed  to  find  any 
other  coachinor  medals. 

Of  those  just  described,  one  seems  to  have  been 
a  compliment  and  the  other  an  advertisement.  In 
the  United  States,  at  a  later  period,  numbers  of 
stage  and  omnibus  tickets  in  the  form  of  coins, 
were  issued,  two  of  which  are  here  shown  (Figs. 
1 8 1,    182),    together  with  an    English   railway  ticket 

(Fig.  183). 

The  copper  'road  ticket'  (Fig.  184),  for  the 
King's  Private  Road,  is  a  badge,  granting  admis- 
sion to  certain  roads  which  were  closed  to  the 
general  public. 

Finally,  the  coin  (Fig.  185)  marked  'Warington,' 
called  in  the  Coin  Catalogues  '  a  racing  token,'  seems 
to  be  a  bad^e,  or  an  admission  ticket  to  some 
enclosure,  since  it  has  a  number,  '  N°  260,'  stamped 
upon  the  back. 


PLATE    XXXV. 


***Vi     .war* 


i8« 


ch.  xxvii  535 

CHAPTER   XXVII 

LIST    OF    BOOKS 

This  does  not  pretend  to  be  an  exhaustive  Bib- 
liography ;  it  is  merely  a  list  of  books  which  are  of 
interest  to  the  coaching  man  : — 

Adams. 

English  Pleasure  Carriages;  their  Origin,  His- 
tory, Varieties,  Materials,  Construction,  &c.  &c., 
together  with  Descriptions  of  New  Inventions.  By 
William  Bridges  Adams.  London :  Charles 
Knight  &  Co.  1837.  8vo,  315  pages.  (Numerous 
plates  of  carriages.  The  author,  brought  up  as  a 
carriage  builder,  afterward  became  a  civil  engineer, 
and  his  book  is  one  of  the  first  on  carriage  building 
in  which  a  higher  grade  of  mechanical  perfection 
in  carriages  is  recognised  and  insisted  upon.) 

Apperlev,  see  '  Nimrod.' 

Artillery. 

Light  Artillery  Drill  Regulations.  United  States 
Army.  Washington  :  Government  Printing  Of- 
fice.     1896. 

Ashford. 

Whips  and  Whip-Making.  By  W.  G.  Ashford, 
Birmingham.  Walsall:  T.  Kirby  &  Son.  1893. 
8vo,  38  pages. 


536  list  of  books  ch.  xxvii 

Bailey. 

Bailey  s  Magazine  of  Sports  and  Pastimes.  Lon- 
don. (Commenced  in  1825,  continued  to  the 
present  day.) 

Baines. 

On  the  Track  of  the  Mail- Coach.  By  F.  E. 
Baines,  C.B.  London  :  Richard  Bentley  &  Son. 
1895.  i2mo,  351  pages.  (Reminiscences  of 
Post-Office  matters  in  England.) 

Baucher. 

Methode  d  Equitation  basee  stir  dcs  nouveaux  prin- 
cipes,  &c.  Par  F.  Baucher.  Paris:  1842.  8vo. 
(And  many  later  editions.) 

A  Method  of  Horsemanship,  &c.  By  F.  Baucher. 
Philadelphia:  A.  Hart.  1 85 1.  121110.  (An  Eng- 
lish translation  by  George  H.  Boker  and  John 
Sergeant.) 

(There  are  other  books  by   Baucher,   but   the 
important  matters  are  contained  in  the  Methode.) 

Beaufort. 

Driving.  By  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Beaufort, 
K.G.,  with  contributions  by  other  authorities. 
Illustrated  by  G.  D.  Giles  and  John  Sturgess. 
London  :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1889.  Sec- 
ond edition,  121110,  426  pages.  (One  of  the 
volumes  of  The  Badminton  Library,  and  the 
most  comprehensive  book  yet  published  on 
Coaching  in  general.) 


ch.  xxvii  list  of  books  537 

Berdmore. 

Carriages,  Roads  and  Coaches.  By  S.  Berdmore. 
London  :   1883.     8vo. 

Blew. 

Brighton  and  its  Coaches.  A  History  of  the 
London  and  Brighton  Road.  By  William  C.  A. 
Blew.  London:  John  C.  Nimmo.  1894.  8vo, 
354  pages.  (There  is  an  excellent  chapter  on 
'  The  Growth  of  Coachmanship'  at  the  end  of 
this  volume.) 

Brighton  Road,  see  Harper. 

Clark. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Bits  of  Horses.  By  Bracy 
Clark.  London:  1835.  Second  edition,  4to, 
63  pages.      (The  first  edition  was  about  1830.) 

Coaching. 

A  Coaching  Souvenir  of  1890.  Paris  to  Ram- 
bouillet,  Paris  to  Poissy.  By  C.  D.  i6mo,  18 
pages.  (A  prettily  printed  Guide-book  to  two 
coaching  roads.) 

Coaching. 

The  Delights  of  Coaching.  By  An  Old  Whip. 
Imprinted  for  Murphy  &  Company,  New  York, 
Cleveland,  and  St.  Louis.  1883.  With  etchings 
by  Stephens  James  Ferris.  Oblong  121110,  56 
pages. 


538  LIST    OF    BOOKS  CH.   XXVII 

CORBETT. 

An  Old  Coachman  s  Chatter,  with  some  Practical 
Remarks  on  Driving.  By  a  Semi-Professional, 
Edward  Corbett,  Colonel,  late  Shropshire  Militia. 
With  8  full-page  illustrations  by  John  Sturgess. 
London  :  Richard  Bentley  &  Son.  Second  edi- 
tion. 1 89 1.  8vo,  304  pages.  (This  book  con- 
tains some  history  of  Coaching  and  a  great  deal 
that  is  very  interesting  and  valuable  about  driving 
four  horses.) 

*  Craven,'  see  Walker. 

Cross. 

The  Autobiography  of  a  Stage- Coachman.  By 
Thomas  Cross.  London:  Hurst  &  Blackett. 
1 86 1.  3  vols.,  i2mo,  311,  312,  292  pages.  (A 
somewhat  rare  book  ;  the  second  and  third  vol- 
umes contain  interesting:  reminiscences  of  Coach- 
ing  in  the  early  part  of  the  century.) 

Dickinson. 

The  Dickinson  Gallery.  Revised  Catalogue  of 
an  Exhibition  of  Pictures  illustrative  of  the  Old 
Coaching  Days,  with  an  Introduction  and  addi- 
tional Descriptive  Notes  by  Captain  Malet.  Lon- 
don :  Dickinson  Bros.  &  Foster.  1877.  i2mo, 
48  pages.  (A  catalogue  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty-three  pictures  and  prints  of  Coaching  sub- 
jects.) 


CH.   XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  539 

J  DWYER. 

Seats  and  Saddles,  Bits  and  Bitting,  and  the  Pre- 
vention and  Cure  of  Restiveness  in  Horses.  By 
Francis  Dwyer.  Edinburgh  and  London.  1868. 
i2mo,  265  pages.  (There  are  many  later  editions. 
The  Fourth,  reprinted  in  America,  by  the  United 
States  Book  Company,  n.  d.,  contains  chapters 
on  Draught  which  are  of  the  oreatest  interest 
to  the  driving  man.  The  whole  book  may  be 
studied  with  profit.  Major  Dwyer,  an  English- 
man, was  for  a  long  time  in  the  Austrian  military 
service.) 

Edgeworth. 

Essay  on  the  Construction  of  Roads  and  Carriages. 
1817. 

English. 

Four-in-hand  Driving.  By  C.  Davis  English. 
Lippincotf  s  Magazine,  April,  1892. 

Form  in  Driving.  By  C.  Davis  English.  Lip- 
pincotf s  Magazine,  November,  1892. 

Felton. 

A  Treatise  on  Carriages,  etc.  William  Felton. 
London:    1794.      2  vols. 

The  Field. 

London.  Articles  and  Correspondence  on  Coach- 
ing in  Numbers  for  Nov.  8,  1890  ;  April  16,  1892  ; 
April  30,    1892;   May   14,    1892;   June   11,    1892; 


54°  LIST    OF    BOOKS  CH.  XXVII 

June  1 8,  1892  ;  July  9,  1892  ;  July  16,  1892  ; 
July  23,  1892;  July  so,  1892;  Aug.  13,  1892; 
Sept.  3,  1892.  (The  pages  of  all  Sporting  jour- 
nals contain  articles  on  Coaching,  but  the  refer- 
ences above  given  are  useful,  because  the  details 
of  Driving  are  there  discussed  at  some  length.) 

Fillis. 

Principes  de  Dressage  et  de  V Equitation.  Par 
James  Fillis.  Troisieme  edition.  Paris :  E. 
Flammarion.  1892.  8vo,  422  pages.  (Illus- 
trated. The  most  satisfactory  treatise  on  Equi- 
tation yet  written,  and  by  a  master  of  the  art.) 

Fitzgerald. 

The  Harness  Maker  s  Illustrated  Manual.  W. 
N.  Fitzgerald.     New  York  :   1875. 

Flower. 

Bits  and  Bearing-  Reins.  By  Edward  Fordham 
Flower.  London:  William  Ridgway.  1875. 
Second  edition,  8vo,  31  pages. 

Horses  and  Harness  ;  a  Sequel  to  Bits  and  Hearing 
Reins.  By  Edward  Fordham  Flower.  London  : 
William  Ridgway.  1876.  Second  thousand.  8vo, 
20  pages.  (These  two  pamphlets  contain  admi- 
rable illustrations,  which  should  find  a  place  on 
every  harness-room  wall.  The  author  for  many 
years  preached  a  crusade  against  the  abuse  of 
the  bearing-rein,  and  with  marked  effect  upon  the 
fashion.) 


CH.   XXVII                          LIST    OF    BOOKS  54-1 

Frith. 

The  Romance  of  Engineering  :  The  Stories  of  the 

Highway,    the    Waterway,    the  Railway,  and   the 

Subway.     By    Henry    Frith.  London :    Ward, 

Lock,  Bowden  &  Co.      1892.  121110,  356  pages. 


de  Gatines. 

Conference  Hippique,  I.  Les  Cinq  Mouvements 
Cles  de  r Equitation.  Par  Rene  de  Gatines. 
Paris  :  Le  Goupy.  1 894.  (A  good  analysis  of 
the  Baucher  method.) 

Conference  Hippique,  II.  La  Gueriniere,  d ' Aure 
et  Baucher.     Paris  :   Le  Goupy.      1896. 

Godden. 

Ye  Coach  Horn  Toot/ers.  By  Walter  Godden. 
London  and  New  York:  Boosey  &  Co.  1894. 
Long  i2mo,  20  pages.  (A  collection  of  twenty- 
five  coach-horn  tunes.) 


Guiet. 

From  Paris  to  Trouville  in  Thirteen  Stages.  Some 
Notes  on  Coaching,  with  Reproductions  of  Photo- 
graphs taken  during  the  journey,  and  a  Descrip- 
tive Account  of  the  Art  of  Carriage  Building. 
By  A.  Guiet.  Illustrated  by  L.  Vallet.  Paris  : 
Guiet  &  Co.,  Coach  Makers.  1893.  Oblong 
8vo,  54  pages. 


542  list  of  books  ch.  xxvii 

Harper. 

The  Brighton  Road :  Old  Times  and  New  on  a 
Classic  Highway.  By  Charles  G.  Harper. 
London:  Chatto  &  Windus.  1892.  8vo,  272 
pages,  illustrated. 


Harris. 

Old  Coaching  Days.  By  Stanley  Harris  ('An 
Old  Stager').  Illustrated  by  John  Sturgess. 
London:  Richard  Bentley  &  Son.  1882.  8vo, 
279  pages,  12  full-page  illustrations.  Sub-title: 
Road  Sketches  in  Bygone  Days.  (As  its  sub- title 
indicates,  a  history  of  Coaching,  with  anecdotes 
of  the  road.) 

The  Coaching  Age.  By  Stanley  Harris  ('An 
Old  Stager').  Illustrated  by  John  Sturgess. 
London:  Richard  Bentley  &  Son.  1885.  Large 
8vo,  16  full-page  illustrations,  468  pages.  (A 
continuation  of  Old  Coaching  Days,  containing 
much  interesting  matter.) 


Haworth. 

Road  Scrapings :  Coaches  and  Coaching.  By 
Captain  M.  E.  Haworth.  London:  Tinsley 
Brothers.  1882.  Small  8vo,  202  pages.  (Anec- 
dotes of  Coaching.) 


ch.  xxvii  list  of  books  543 

Hayes. 

Illustrated  Horse  Breaking.  By  Captain  M. 
Horace  Hayes.  London :  Thacker  &  Co. 
1890.     (A  very  valuable  work.) 

Riding  on  the  Flat  and  Across  Country.  By 
Captain  M.  Horace  Hayes.     London:  1891. 

Haywood. 

Accidents  to  Horses  on  Carriage-way  Pavements. 
By  William  Haywood.  Report  to  London  Com- 
missioners.     1873. 

'  Hieover.' 

Stable  Talk  and  Table  Talk ;  or.  Spectacles  for 
Young  Sportsmen.  By  'Harry  Hieover.'  Sec- 
ond edition.  London  :  Longmans,  Brown,  Green 
&  Longmans.  1846.  8vo,  2  vols.,  452  and  408 
pages.  (There  is  a  great  deal  in  these  volumes 
of  importance  to  the  coaching  man.  '  Harry  Hie- 
over' is  the  pseudonym  ol   Charles  Brindley.) 

The  Sportsman 's  Friend  in  a  Frost.  By  '  Harry 
Hieover.'     London  :    1857.     Svo,  416  pages. 

Hooper. 

Notes  071  the  Construction  of  Private  Carriages 
in  England,  and  Reports  on  the  Carriages  of  the 
International  Exhibitions  of  Paris,  1855  ;  London, 
1862  ;  Dublin,  1865  ;  Paris,  1867  ;  London,  187 J. 
By  George  N.  Hooper.  London :  printed  by 
G.  Phipps.      1876.      i6mo. 


544  list  of  books  ch.  xxvii 

Houghton. 

The  Coaches  of  Colonial  New  York.  By  George 
W.  W.  Houghton.  New  York  Historical  So- 
ciety.     1890.      8vo,  31  pages. 

Howlett. 

Lecons  de  Guides.  Par  Edwin  Howlett.  Paris  : 
Pairault  et  Cie.  1893.  Large  8vo,  154  pages. 
(Edwin  Howlett  is  well  known  to  American  and 
French  coaching  men,  as  an  admirable  teacher 
of  four-in-hand  driving.  To  a  natural  ability  for 
instructing,  he  has  joined  large  practice  in  driving, 
and  in  his  book  he  has  endeavoured,  most  success- 
fully, to  impart  what  he  says  to  his  pupils  on  the 
box.  Every  word  should  be  carefully  studied  by 
an  aspirant  for  coaching  honours,  and  the  author 
himself  should  be  sought  by  any  beginner  who 
may  have  the  good  fortune  to  be  within  reach  of 
his  stables  in  Paris.) 

Driving  Lessons.  By  Edwin  Howlett.  New 
York:  R.  H.  Russell  &  Son.  1894.  Large  8vo, 
159  pages. 

The  Hub. 
A  Magazine  for  Carriage  Builders.      New  York. 
Monthly,  from  1871. 

Huth. 

A  Bibliographical  Record  of  Hippology.  By  F. 
H.  Huth.  London:  Bernard  Ouaritch.  1887. 
Small  4to,  439  pages.  (A  very  complete  cata- 
logue of  works  on  Horses,  Driving,  etc.) 


ch.  xxvii  list  of  books  545 

Inman. 

The  Old  Santa  Fe  Trail,  The  Story  of  a  Great 
Highway.  By  Colonel  Henry  Inman,  U.  S.  A. 
New  York  and  London :  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 1898.  8vo,  490  pages.  (Contains  inter- 
esting passages  on  Coaching  in  the  West.) 

JOUFFRET. 

Traite  de  la  Conduit e  en  Guides  et  de  V  Entretien 
des  Voitnrcs.  Par  le  Commandant  Jouffret. 
Paris  :  Librarie  Militaire  de  L.  Baudoin  et  Cie. 
1889.  Large  8vo,  149  pages,  62  wood-cuts. 
(Does  not  contain  a  great  deal  about  Four-in- 
hand  Driving,  but  gives  many  explanations  of 
terms,  and  of  parts  of  harness,  which  are  useful 
to  a  person  driving  in  France.) 

Knight. 

Hints  on  Driving.  By  Captain  C.  Morley 
Knight,  R.A.  Illustrated  by  G.  H.  A.  White, 
Royal  Artillery.  London  and  New  York  :  George 
Bell  &  Sons.  1894.  121110,  180  pages,  with 
illustrations.  (Contains  detailed  instructions  both 
for  four-horse,  and  for  tandem,  driving.) 

KOHLER. 

The  Coach  Horn :  What  to  Blow,  and  How  to 
Blow  it.  By  An  Old  Guard.  London  :  Kohler 
&  Son.      1893.     Third  edition.      i6mo,  23  pages. 

Lagard. 

La  Carrosscrie  Francaise.  Six  Livraisons  par  An. 
Paris:   L.  Lagard.      (Magazine.) 

35 


546  list  of  books  ch.  xxvii 

Latchford. 

The  Loriner :  Opinions  and  Observations  on 
Bridle-Bits  and  the  Suitable  Bitting  of  Horses. 
With  illustrations.  By  Benjamin  Latchford. 
London:  Nichols,  Son  &  Co.  1871.  Small  4to. 
(A  useful,  short  treatise,  with  a  large  number  of 
drawings  of  bits,  and  a  translation  of  a  treatise 
on  Bitting  by  Don  Juan  Segundo,  1832.  The 
Loriners'  (Bit  Makers')  Company  is  one  of  the 
old  Guilds  of  London,  dating  back  to  the  thir- 
teenth  century.) 

Lennox. 

Pictures  of  Sporting  Life  and  Character.  By 
Lord  William  Lennox.  London:  i860.  2  vols., 
i2mo. 

Coaching,  with  Anecdotes  of  the  Road.  By  Lord 
William  Pitt  Lennox.  London:  Hurst  & 
Blackett.  1876.  (Contains  interesting  coaching 
gossip  and  hints  about  driving. ) 

Lenoble   du  Teil. 

Conrs  Theorique  d'  Equitation,  de  Dressage  ct 
d'Attelage.  Par  J.  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Ecuyer; 
Professeur  a  l'Ecole  des  Haras  Nationaux.  Paris 
et  Nancy  :  Berget-Levrault  et  Cie.  1889.  Large 
8vo,  455  pages.  (This  book  treats  of  a  depart- 
ment of  driving  too  much  neglected  in  America  ; 
the  handling  and  bitting  of  horses  before  they 
are    put    to    harness,    and   while   they   are    being 


CH.  XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  547 

prepared  for  driving- ;  the  remarks  upon  this 
subject  are  useful.) 

Levesque. 

Les  Grandes  Guides.  Par  Donatien  Levesque, 
Paris:  Librarie  ^Cynegetique  Pairault.  1886. 
i2mo,  180  pages.  (Only  three  hundred  num- 
bered copies  printed.  An  admirable  little  book 
by  a  good  coachman.) 

Les  Guides.  Par  Donatien  Levesque.  Paris ; 
Adolphe  Le  Goupy.      1897.      i2mo,  217  pages. 

Linsley. 

Morgan  Horses :  A  Premium  Essay  011  the  Origin, 
History,  and  Characteristics  of  this  Reinarkable 
American  Breed  of  Horses.  By  D.  C.  Linsley, 
Middlebury,  Vermont.  New  York  :  C.  M.  Saxton. 
1864.      121110,  340  pages.      (First  edition  1856.) 

Macniell. 

Seventh  Report  of  the  Commissioners,  on  Road 
from  London  to  Holy  head.  House  of  Commons, 
13  July,  1830.  Folio,  54  pages.  (The  Appendix 
contains  reports  by  Parnell,  by  Telford,  and 
by  Macniell,  and  a  description  of  Macneill's 
Dynamometer. ) 

'  Magenta.' 

The  Haiidy  Horse  Book ;  or,  Practical  Instruc- 
tions in  Driving,  Riding,  and  the  General  Care 
and     Management    of    Horses.      By    a    Cavalry 


54-8  LIST   OF    BOOKS 


CH.  XXVII 


Officer  ('Magenta').  Edinburgh  and  London: 
William  Blackwood  &  Sons.  1878.  Ninth  edi- 
tion, i2mo,  167  pages.      (First  edition  1865.) 

Malet. 

Annals  of  the  Road ;  or.  Notes  on  Mail  and  Stage 
Coaching  in  Great  Britain.  By  Captain  [Harold 
Esdaille]  Malet,  1 8th  Hussars.  To  which  are 
added  Essays  on  the  Road.  By  '  Nimrod.'  Lon- 
don :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1876.  Large 
8vo,  403  pages.  (An  interesting  book  on  Four- 
horse  Driving,  and  especially  valuable  as  contain- 
ing (pp.  177-387)  a  reprint  of  Essays  on  the  Road, 
by  'Nimrod')  [Charles  J.  Apperlev],  first  pub- 
lished in  The  Sporting  Magazine,  London  ;  Vols, 
ix.  to  xx.  New  Series  ;  the  first  in  1822,  the  last 
in  1827.  These  Essays  are  particularly  inter- 
esting because  they  were  written  by  a  practical 
coaching  man  at  the  time  when  public  coaching 
was  at  its  best  in  England.  A  coachino-  man 
should  study  them  with  care,  and  cannot  fail  to 
learn  much  from  them.  A  large  portion  of  the 
Chapter  on  '  Driving'  in  Walker's  Manly  Exer- 
cises is  taken  from  these  Essays.  An  admirable 
Glossary  of  Terms  of  the  Road  is  appended  to 
Malet' s  volume.) 

Maudslay. 

Highways  and  Horses.  By  Athol  Maudslay. 
London:  Chapman  &  Hall.  1888.  8vo,  471 
pages. 


CH.   XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  549 

MlCHELIN. 

Le  Pneumatique,  son  Application  aux  Voitures  a 
Chevaux  et  sans  Chcvaux.  Par  M.  A.  Michelin. 
Paris:  1896.  Pamphlet  of  40  pages.  (Reprinted 
from  The  Memoirs  of  the  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers of  France,  June  1896.  Contains  an  account 
of  valuable  experiments  on  the  draught  of  vehicles 
with  pneumatic  tires.) 

MONTIGNY. 

Manuel  des  Piqueurs,  Cockers,  Grooms  et  Pale- 
frcnicrs,  a  V  Usage  des  Ecoles  de  Dressage,  et 
d' Equitation  de  France.  Par  M.  le  Comte  de 
Montigny.  Paris:  L.  Baudoin.  1891.  Seventh 
edition,  i2tno,  559  pages.  (The  first  edition  was 
published  in  1865,  under  the  Second  Empire. 
This  book  treats  very  thoroughly  of  all  stable 
matters,  and  there  are  instructions  for  driving 
pairs  and  fours.) 

Morin. 

Nouvelles  Experiences  sur  le  Frottement  des  Axes 
de  Rotation,  faites  a  Metz  en  18 'jy.  Par  Arthur 
Morin.  Paris:  Carilian-Gceury.  1838.  4to, 
100  pages. 

Experiences  sur  le  Tirage  des  Voitures,  faites  en 
1S37  et  1838.  Par  Arthur  Morin.  Paris  :  Ca- 
rilian-Gceury.     1839.     4to,  102  pages. 

Expeneiices  sur  le  Tirage  des  Voitures  et  sur  les 
Ejfets  Destructeurs  quelles  exercent  sur  les  Ro7ites, 


550  LIST    OF    BOOKS  CH.  XXVII 

executees  en  1837  e*  f^S^y  e^  en  J^39  c^  fS-/1- 
Par  Arthur  Morin.  Paris:  L.  Mathias.  1842. 
4to  ;  3  parts,  separately  paged:  I.  188  pages; 
II.  124  pages  ;  III.  67  pages.  (The  edition  of 
1842  includes  that  of  1839.) 

Voitures  employees  anx  Services  public  ct  prive 
autres  que  celles  des  Chcmins  tie  fcr.  Report 
by  General  Morin  on  Class  VI.  of  the  London 
Exhibition  of  1862.  Published  in  the  second  vol- 
ume of  Official  Reports.  Paris  :  Napoleon  Chaix 
&  Cie.      1862. 

Murray. 

The  Perfect  Horse.  By  William  Henry  Murray. 
8vo.     Boston:   1873;  New  York  :   1881. 

'  NlMROD.' 

The  Road.  By  '  Nimrod'  [C.  J.  Apperley]. 
First  published  in  The  Quarterly  Review  in  1832. 
(Numerous  reprints  of  this  have  been  made, 
among  them  a  i6mo,  by  John  Murray.  London  : 
:^53-  63  pages.  This  covers  some  of  the  same 
ground  as  the  Essays.  The  description  of  the 
astonishment  of  an  old  fellow  who  fell  asleep 
in  1742,  and  woke  up  to  drive  on  a  coach  in 
1832,  is  spirited  and  has  been  always  deservedly 
popular.  '  Nimroo'  had  a  happy  faculty  for 
treating  sporting  subjects,  and  his  famous  ac- 
count of  a  run  with  the  Ouorn  Hounds  has 
served  as  a  model  for  many  succeeding  writers 
in  that  line.) 


CH.   XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  551 

'  Nimrod 's  Hunting  Tour  in  Scotland  and  the 
NortJi  of  Bug/and,  with  the  Table-Talk  of  Dis- 
tinguished Sporting  Characters,  and  Anecdotes  of 
Masters  of  Hounds,  Crack  Riders,  and  Celebrated 
Amateur  Dragsme?i.  London :  C.  Templeman. 
1857.  Second  edition,  8vo,  427  pages.  (This 
is  also  called  '  Nimrod  s  Northern  Tour,  and 
was  written  in  1834-35  and  first  published 
in  1835.  The  Coaching  part  is  interesting  and 
valuable.) 

NOBBS. 

( lid  Coaching  Days ;  Some  Incidents  in  the  Life 
of  Moses  James  Nobbs,  the  Last  of  the  Mail  Coach 
Guards.  Told  by  Himself.  With  a  Preface  by 
the  Controller  of  the  London  Postal  Service. 
London  :  No  date  or  publisher.  The  Preface  is 
dated  December  1861.  i8mo,  55  pages.  (Some 
unimportant  anecdotes  of  Coaching.) 

d'Ocagne. 

Le  Mail- Coach  en  France.  Par  Mortimer 
d'Ocagne.  Paris:  Adolphe  Le  Goupy.  1891. 
i2mo,  32  pages.  (A  short  sketch  of  Coaching  in 
France,  England,  and  America.) 

Parnell. 

A  Treatise  on  Roads.  By  Sir  Henry  Parnell, 
Bart.  London:  Longmans.  1838.  8vo,  465 
pages. 


55 2  LIST    OF    BOOKS  CH.   XXVII 

Paterson. 

Pater  son 's  Roads;  being-  an  entirely  original 
and  accurate  Description  of  all  the  Direct  and 
Principal  Cross  Roads  in  England  and  Wales, 
etc.,  etc.  Eighteenth  edition.  London :  Edward 
Mogg.      1829. 

Philipson,  John. 

Harness :  As  It  Has  Been,  As  It  Is,  and  As  It 
Should  Be.  By  John  Philipson.  With  remarks 
on  Traction,  and  the  Use  of  the  Cape  Cart  by 
1  Nimshivich?  Newcastle-upon-Tyne:  Andrew 
Reid ;  and  London:  Edward  Stanford.  1882. 
8vo,  80  pages,  numerous  illustrations.  (This 
treatise  is  full  of  valuable  information,  which  the 
coaching  man  should  have  by  heart.) 

The  Technicalities  of  the  Art  of  Coach-Body- 
Making.  By  John  Philipson.  London  :  John 
Kemp  &  Co.      1885.      i2mo,  46  pages. 

The  Art  and  Craft  of  Coach  Building.  By  John 
Philipson.     London:  George  Bell  &  Sons.     1897. 

Philipson,  William. 

Draught.  By  William  Philipson.  London  : 
John  Kemp  &  Co.  1885.  i2mo,  23  pages.  (A 
short  scientific  treatise  on  Draught  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  resistance  of  the  vehicle.) 

Prize  Essay  on  the  Suspension  of  Carriages.  By 
William  Philipson.  New  York :  The  Hub 
Publishing  Co.      1889.      121110,  61   pages.     (With 


CH.  XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  553 

many  plates.  Although  this  is  essentially  a 
coach-maker's  book,  it  is  interesting  to  the  driving 
man  who  cares  to  understand  the  construction  of 
his  vehicle.) 

Paper    on    Brakes  for    Retarding   the    Motion  of 
Carriages  in  Descending  Inclines.      By  William 
Philipson.      Read   before   the   Institute  of  British 
Carriage    Manufacturers,   August  5,    1888.      Lon- 
don :    1888.      8vo,  20  pages. 

Quarterly. 

The  London  Quarterly  Review,  October  1877. 
Article  on  Coaching.     Anonymous.      1  7  pages. 

Reynardson. 

Down  the  Road ;  or,  Reminiscences  of  a  Gentleman 
Coachman.  By  C.  T.  S.  Birch  Reynardson. 
London:  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1875.  8vo, 
224  pages.  (Eleven  good  coloured  plates  by 
H.  Alken.  Agreeable  reminiscences,  with  some 
useful  hints.) 

Richardson. 

Practical  Carriage  Building.  By  M.  T.  Rich- 
ardson. New  York :  M.  T.  Richardson  &  Co. 
1892.      2  vols.,  i2mo,  222  and  280  pages. 

Rider  and  Driver. 

The  Rider  and  Driver.  Weekly,  First  number, 
March  7,  1891.     New  York.     Large  4to. 


554  LIST  OF  books  CH.  XXVII 

Road. 

The  Road.  The  Riding,  Driving,  and  Coaching 
Journal.  London.  Folio.  Monthly.  Com- 
menced April  i,  1891.     Edited  by  '  Fortinbras.' 

Sidney. 
\1  The  Book  of  the  Horse.  By  S.  Sidney.  London  : 
n.  d.  1874  (?).  4to,  604  pages.  (Contains  good 
Chapters  on  Driving  and  Coaching.) 
Four-in-Hand  Driving  as  a  Fine  Art.  By  S. 
Sidney,  in  'The  New  Quarterly  Review.  London  : 
October,  1876.      13  pages. 

'  Stonehenge,'  see  Walsh. 

Strattox. 

The  World  on  Wheels  ;  or,  Carriages,  with  their 
Historical  Associations  from  the  Earliest  to  the 
Present  Time,  &c.  &c.  By  Ezra  M.  Strattox. 
Illustrated.  New  York  :  Published  by  the  Author, 
325  East  Eighteenth  Street.  1878.  Large  8vo, 
490  pages,  364  illustrations.  (A  very  complete 
history  of  carriages,  which,  with  Thrupp's  book, 
really  exhausts  the  subject  as  far  as  it  is  of 
interest  to  the  driving  man.) 


Swales. 

Driving  as  I  Found  it,  What  to  Drive,  How 
to  Drive.  By  Frank  Swales.  Illustrated  by 
Walter  Pettie.  London,  Paris,  Washington, 
Chicago,   New  York  :  Brentano's.      1891.     i2mo. 


CH.   XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  555 

1 80  pages.  (Contains  some  useful  hints,  and 
good  plates  of  Hands.  Some  of  the  Chapters 
are  taken  from  Stable  Talk  and  Tabic  Talk,  now 
a  somewhat  rare  book.) 

Tailer. 

Coaching  in  France.  By  T.  Suffern  Tailer,  in 
Illustrated  American,  August  29,  1891. 

Coaching  and  Coachmen.  By  T.  Suffern  Tailer, 
in  Illustrated  American,  September  5,  1891. 
(Both  of  these  articles  are  beautifully  illustrated.) 

Tally  Ho. 

The  Tally  Ho  !  Notes  on  Coaching.  New  York  : 
Valentine  &  Co.  1877.  Pamphlet  of  28  pages, 
with  illustrations  by  Grey  Parker. 

Tandem. 

Hints  to  Young  Tandem  Drivers  by  an  Old  Hand. 
Oxford:  T.  Shrimpton  &  Son.  1875.  i6mo, 
24  pages. 

Thrupp. 

The  History  of  Coaches.  By  G.  A.  Thrupp. 
With  numerous  illustrations.  London :  Kirby 
&  Endean  ;  New  York :  The  Hub  Publishing 
Company.  1877.  8vo,  152  pages.  (The  title 
'  Coaches'  includes  all  carriages.  This  is  a  very 
complete  and  important  book,  and  of  interest  to 
every  coaching  man.) 


556  list  of  books  ch.  xxvii 

Tristram. 

Coaching  Days  and  Coaching  Ways.  By  W. 
Outram  Tristram.  Illustrated  by  Hugh  Thom- 
son and  Herbert  Railton.  London  :  Macmillan 
&  Co.  1888.  Large  4to,  367  pages.  There  is 
also  a  small  edition,  i2mo,  376  pages,  1893;  tne 
same  publishers.  (Mainly  anecdotes  and  descrip- 
tions of  English  coach  roads.) 

Twining. 

Travels  in  America  One  Hundred  Years  Ago ; 
being  Notes  and  Reminiscences.  By  Thomas 
Twining.  New  York :  Harper  &  Brothers. 
1894.  i6mo,  181  pages.  (Contains  some  notes 
on  travelling  by  coach.) 

Underhill. 

Driving  for  Pleasure  ;  or,  the  Harness,  Stable  and 
its  Appointments.  By  Francis  T.  Underhill. 
New  York.  1896.  Large  4to.  (Profusely  illus- 
trated and  thoroughly  up  to  date.) 

Uzanne. 

La  Locomotion  a  Trovers  /'  Histoire  et  les  Mceurs. 
Par  Octave  Uzanne.  Paris :  Paul  Ollendorf. 
1900.  Small  folio,  281  pages.  (A  very  complete 
history  of  locomotion,  beautifully  illustrated.) 

VlNEV. 

Methode  de  Trompc  dc  Ma il- Coach.  (Preface  par 
M.  le   Comte   Henrv  d'Yanville.)     Par  Victor 


CH.  XXVII  LIST    OF    BOOKS  557 

Viney  et  Alexandre  Passevant.  Paris  :  Adolphe 
Le  Goupy.  1893.  Oblong-  i2mo,  88  pages. 
(Contains  a  collection  of  the  regular  coach  calls  and 
a  large  number  of  tunes  and  fanfares.) 

Walker. 

British  Manly  Exercises ;  in  which  Rowing  and 
Sailing  arc  now  first  described,  and  Riding  and 
Driving  are  for  the  first  time  given  in  a  work  of 
this  kind,  &c.  c2fc.  By  Donald  Walker.  Third 
edition.  London:  J.  Hurst.  1835.  The  first 
and  second  editions  are  dated  March  1,  1834,  and 
March  14,  1834.  i6mo,  291  pages.  (There  are 
2  plates  by  H.  Alken,  and  53  line  drawings  on 
copper.  Seventy  pages  of  the  book  are  devoted 
to  driving,  a  large  part  of  it  drawn  from  '  Nimrod's' 
Essays,  and  from  his  article  in  The  Quarterly 
Review.  There  are  other  editions  of  this  popu- 
lar book  ;  the  tenth  (London  :  H.  G.  Bohn,  i860) 
is  edited  by  '  Craven'  [John  William  Carleton], 
and  has  some  slight  additions  and  modifications.) 

Walsh  ['  Stonehenge']  . 

Riding  and  Driving.  By  J.  H.  Walsh.  Lon- 
don :    1863. 

Ward. 

Hints  on  Driving.  By  C.  S.  Ward,  the  well- 
known  '  Whip  of  the  West.'  London  :  pub- 
lished by  the  Author.  1870.  4to,  24  pages. 
(With  a  photograph  of  the  author,  one  of  the 
most  famous  Whips  of  his  time.) 


558  LIST    OF    BOOKS 


CH.  XXVII 


Whitley. 

Coventry  Coaching  and  Coach  Roads.  By  T.  W. 
Whitley,  Coventry.  Printed  at  The  Herald 
Office.  1887.  i2mo,  27  pages.  (A  Sketch  of 
Coaching  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Coventry  in 
the  early  part  of  this  century.) 

Wrangel. 

Das  Luxus-Fnhrwerk.     Ein  Handbuch  fur  Equi- 
pagenbesitzer.     Von  Graf  C.  G.  Wrangel.     Stutt- 
gart:     Schickhardt    &    Ebner  (Konrad    Wittwei) 
1898.     Large  8vo,  191  pages. 

YOUATT. 

Draught.  By  William  Youatt.  46  pages,  8vo. 
Forms  the  latter  part  of  '  TJie  Horse!  (By  the 
same  author.)  London  :  Longmans.  1866,  and 
many  other  editions.  (This  is  the  classical  treatise 
on  Draught.) 

Young. 

The  Four-in-hand,  and  Glances  at  the  Literature 
of  Coaching.  By  Jennie  J.  Young.  Lippincotfs 
Magazine,  June  1878. 


CH.   XXVII 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES 


559 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES    FOR    PARTS    OF 

HARNESS 

The  following  French  equivalents  for  the  English 
names  of  parts  of  harness  or  of  a  coach  are  given 
for  the  convenience  of  persons  driving  in  France. 
The  list  has  been  revised  by  Mr  Morris  E.  How- 
lett,  of  Paris,  and  may  be  trusted  as  giving  the 
names  actually  used  in  a  French  stable.  The  gen- 
der is  denoted  by  (m)  or  (/).  The  figures  refer  to 
the  cuts  in  the  text. 


Axle-arm,  13,  14     . 

Back-strap,  106,  107 

Bar-bit,  B,  88      .     . 

In  the  lower  bar 

In  the  middle  bar    . 

In  the  upper  bar 

Upper  ring  (of  a  bit 

Bar- buckle     . 

Bearing-rein,  93 

Belly-band 

Billet  (of  a  rein),  89 

Bit  (used  for  a  bit  gener- 
ally, but  especially  for 
a  curb-bit)       .      .      .      . 

Black  leather      . 

Boss,  84 


Essieu  (m) 

Croupiere  {/) 

Mors  (m)  a  barette  {/) 

en  bas 

an  milieu 

au  banquet 

CEil  (m) 

Boucle  (/)  a  traverse 

Enrenement  (;//) 

Sous-ventriere  ( f) 

Porte-mors  (m) 


Mors  (m) 
Cuir  (m)  noir 
Cocarde    {/),    [Bossette 
(  /  )  when  on  a  bit] 


560 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES 


CH.   XXVII 


Breast  collar,  81 
Breechinor 

Bridle,  84      .     . 

Buckle 

To  burnish     . 

Buxton  bit,  D,  88 

Canon  (of  a  bit),  C,  90 

Centre-hook,  A,  105    . 

Centre-terret 

Chape,  A,  105    . 

Cheek-piece,  84 

In  the  cheek  .... 


Clip  (of  a  tug),  A,  101 

Clipper 

Cock-eye,  104    . 
Cock  horse    .... 
Collar,  94,  95,  96    . 
Coupling-rein 


To  cross  the  traces,  B,  1 26 
Crown-piece    (of    bridle), 

86 

Crupper,  106,   107  . 
Crupper-dock     .... 
Curb-bit 


Bricole  (/) 

Reculement  (;//) 

Bride  (/) 

Boucle  (/) 

Polir  a  la  gourmette 

Wellington 

Canon  (m) 

Crochet      (;;/)     d'enrene- 

ment  (m) 
Crochet       d'enrenement 

portant  clef  (  f) 
Courroie     (/")    de    man- 

celle  (/) 
Montant  (;;/) 
Au  banquet  (or  en  haut), 

equally  correct 
Chape  (/) 
Tondeuse  {/) 
Mousqueton  (m)  ferme 
Cheval  (m)  de  renfort 
Collier  (m) 
Italienne  {/),  Guide  (/") 

interieure,      Accouple- 

ment  (m) 
Croiser  les  traits  (;;/) 

Tetiere  (  /") 
Croupiere  (  /) 
Culeron  (m) 
Mors  ( in)  a  gourmette  (  f) 


CH.   XXVII 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES 


561 


drag 


Curb-chain     . 
To  cut  the  tires 

D 

Draught-eye      (for 

harness),  A,  99    . 
Draught-eye     (for    coach 

harness),  C,  99    . 
Draught-rein       .      . 
Driving  cushion,  37     . 
Dutch  collar,  81      .     .     . 
Elbow  bit,  C,  88     .     .     . 
Face-drop  (face-piece),  84 
False     belly-band,     Plate 

XXV.    .     .     . 
Foot-board     . 
French  loop  trace, 
Front,  84 .      .     . 
Gag-runner,  A,  93 
Girth     .... 
Halter .... 
Web  halter    .     . 
Hames,  100  . 
Hame-strap,  100 
Hame-terret,  100 
Harness    . 
Head-stall,  84     . 
Hip-strap  . 
Hole  (in  a  strap) 
Horse  clothing  . 


B. 


102 


Gourmette  ( f) 
Chartrer  les  roues  (/) 
De  (m) 

Tirage  (m)  a  chape  ( /) 

Tirage  a  anneau  {in) 
Guide  (  f)  exterieure 
Coussin  {fit)  de  guide 
Bricole  (/) 

Mors  {in)  a  baionnette(yr) 
Plaque  { f)  de  front  (m) 

Fausse  sous-ventriere(y) 
Coquille  {/) 
Trait  {in)  a  crosse 
Frontail  (m) 
Panurge  {/) 
Sangle  (/) 
Licol  (///) 
Licol  de  sangle 
Atelles  (/) 
Curroie  {/)  d'attelle 
Clef  (/)  d'attelle 
Harnais  {m) 
Tetiere  {/) 
Surdos  {in) 
Point  (w) 

Couverture  {/)  de  cheval 
(m) 


36 


56: 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES 


CH.  XXVII 


Kidney-link,  97  . 
Kidney-link  ring,  100  . 

Lamp 

To  lap  the  traces,  C,  126 
Lead-bars,  30     ... 

Lead-horse 

Lead-rein 

Lead-trace,  104  . 

To  let  out  near  coupling- 
rein 

To  take  up  near  coupling- 
rein 

Off  coupling-rein    . 

Link  (of  the  pole-chain, 
of  the  curb-chain) 

Liverpool  bit,  A,  88 

Loin-cloth 

Loop 

Loop,  fixed  or  sliding 
Loop-trace,  A,  102  . 
Main-bar,  30 . 
Martingale,  100 . 


Coulant  (m)  d'attelle  (/) 
Anneau  (m)  de  chainette 

(/) 
Lanterne  {/) 

Entrelasser  les  traits  (m) 

Palonniers   (m)  de  volee 

Cheval  (w)  de  volee 
Guide  {/)  de  volee 
Trait  (m)  de  volee 
Allonaer     l'italienne     de 

gauche 
Raccourcir  l'italienne  de 

gauche 
Italienne  de  droite 

Maille  (/) 

Mors   (m)  a  ballon   sans 

barette  (f) 
Caparacon  (;;/)  de  drap 
Passant  (m) 

Passant  fixe,  ou  coulant 
Trait  (m)  a  de  (m) 
Sommier  (;//) 
Martingale  (  /) 


(It  is  customary,  in  America  and  in  England,  to  call,  in  double 
harness,  a  'martingale,'  the  strap  which  goes  from  the  belly-band  to 
the  bottom  of  the  collar,  as  shown  in  Fig.  100  of  the  text  ;  this  in 
America,  but  not  in  England,  is  frequently  called  'choke-strap,'  or 
'breast-plate.') 


CH.   XXVII  LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES  563 

Mountings  (of  harness)   .  Garniture  {/) 

Wire  mountings,  105  .      .  Jonc  (m)  anglais 

Mouth-piece,  90      .      .      .  Embouchure  {/) 

Monogram ChifTre  (m) 

Near  horse Cheval  (;;/)  de  gauche 

Newmarket      tug-bearer,  Courroie     (f)    de    man- 

B,  105  celle  (/)  mobile 

Nose-band,  84    ...  Muserolle  (/) 

Off  horse Cheval  (m)  de  droite 

Pad,  105 Mantelet  (m) 

Pad-terret,  105,  112     .      .  Clef  (/)  de  mantelet  (m) 

Patent  leather     ....  Cuir  (m)  vernis 

Pipe Fourreau  (m) 

Point-strap,  A,  105      .     .  Contre-sanglon     (m)     de 

fausse  sangle  (/) 

Pole Timon  (m) 

Pole-chain,  114,  115    .     .  Chainette     (/)      [d'acier 

M] 
Pole-head,  29      ...     .     Trompe  (/)  de  timon  (m) 

Pole-hook,  116.      .      .      .     Crochet  (m)  de  timon 

Pole-strap  (pole-piece)      .     Chainette  de  cuir 

Polishing  pad,  121.      .      .     Gourmette    {/)   sur  buf- 

fle,  Cotte  de  maille 
Port  (of  a  bit),  90  .     .      .     Liberte  (/)  de  langue 

To  put-to Atteler 

Reins,  108 Guides  (/) 

Set  of  reins Jeu  (m)  des  guides  ( f) 

Rein-billet,  89     ...      .     Porte-mors  (m) 

Ring  snaffle,  92       .      .      .     Filet    (m)    a    quatre    an- 

neaux  (m) 


5^4 


LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES 


CH.   XXVII 


Roller-bolt,  125 

Rosette     . 

Russet  leather 

Splinter-bar,  8 

Single  bar,  30 

Snaffle-bit,  91 

Spring,  27      . 

Spring-hook  (for  pole- 
chain),  1 17 

Splice  (in  a  rein,  or  in  a 
whip-thong),  163 

Swivel 

Stable-shutter     . 


To  take  out  the  horses 
Terret,  112. 
Throat-latch,  84 
Tongue  (of  a  buckle)  . 
Trace,  102,   103,  104   . 
Trace-bearer 


Paumelle  (/) 
Cocarde  (  f) 
Cuir  (m)   jaune 
Volee  (/) 
Palonnier  (m) 
Filet  (m) 
Ressort  (;;/) 
Mousqueton 
sort  (m) 


m     a    res- 


Tuct    101 


Tug-buckle,  10 1,  118 


Eye  of  tug-buckle,  118 


Wheel 

Wheel  horse 
Wheel-trace,  102,  103 


Anture  (/) 
Pivot  (m) 

Volet     (;;/),     Store     (m), 
Jalousie  (  /"),  Persienne 

(/) 
Deteler 

Clef  (/) 

Sous-gorge  (  f) 

Ardillon  (m) 

Trait  (m) 

Porte-trait  (m) 

Grand  boucleteau  (w)  de 

trait  (;;/ ) 
Boucle  a  crampons   (m), 

or,  a  mancelles  ( f) 
Crampon    (m),    Mancelle 

(/) 
Roue  (/) 

Cheval  (m)  de  timon  (m) 

Trait  (m)  de  timon  (m) 


CH.  XXVII  LIST    OF    FRENCH    NAMES  565 

Whip,  159 Fouet  (m) 

Handle  of  whip,  159  .      .  Poignet  (m) 
Ferrule,  or  collar,  of  whip, 

159 Virole  (/) 

Butt-cap  of  whip,  159      .  Cuvette  (/) 

Thong  of  whip,  162     .      .  Monture  (/) 

Point  (of  thong)      .     .     .  Meche 

Winker,  84 CEillere 


! 


567 


INDEX 


Abbott  Downing  Co.  .      .  116 

Aberdeen  coach.    .      .      .  466 

Accessories.       ....  80 

Accidents 502 

ackerman 28 

Adam 104 

Adams 1 

Adams  &  Co.   Express.    .  469 

Agar 230 

Alken 333,  413 

Aluminium  bronze.      .      .  239 

America.       Coaching    in  432, 

474 

American  coach.     .      .    37,  116 

"  method  of 

driving.    .      .  333 


Angell. 
Angle  of  lock.  . 
"       trace. 
Apparatus.      Driving 
Apprentice. 

Aprons 

Ardsley  coach.  . 
Arm.     Position  of. 


•  432 
28,  337 

.     189 

•  345 
.     412 

.       98 

434,  456 

■     3QI 


Ascot 516 

Attachment  of  horse.  .      .  187 
Austrian        method        of 

driving 476 


Awnings 

Axle 

Breaking  an 

Colli  nge 

Dip  of  arm  of 

friction  . 

Gather  of  . 

Length  of  . 

Mail       .      .      . 

Parallel 

Taper    . 


96 

3° 
506 

32 
40 

J57 
47 
37 
31 
34 
34 


Back-strap 222 

Backing 337 

Baggage  net.     .  17 

Ball-bearings 159 

Balling 502 

"       pads.    .      .      .      .  503 

Balls.       The    crushing    of 

steel 160 

Bar.      Splinter-       ...  22 

Barclay.      298,  463,  466,  473 

Barker.       125,       Plates 

XX.,  XXI. 

Barouche  landau.    .      .      .  112 

Bars.      Lead-    ....  55 

Bartlett 3 

Basket 93 


568 


INDEX 


Battersby 365 

Baucher.  .  .  368,  375,  378 
Bearing-rein.  .  .  206,  256 
Beaufort.   31,  no,  198,  280, 

290,  432 
Bedford  experiments. 
Beginner.      The 

Belmont 

Bending  lessons.     . 

Bennett 

Bensington  Driving  Club 
Berlin.     . 
Bianconi.    . 
Billets.      Rein- 
Birthday  parade. 
Bits.  .      . 
Bitting.  . 


Blake.    . 
Blekjht. 
Blunderbuss 
Body.      . 

BOKER.     . 


Booking. 


"       office. 
Books.      List  of 
Boots  of  coach. 
"        men.  . 
Box  coat. 
"    Hill  coach. 
"    seat.      .      . 
"    Position  on  the 
Boxes.      Lunch- 
Braces.      Thorough 

Brake 

"  Foot    .      . 


201, 


163 

293 

486 

369 

467 

431 

4 
112 

225 
103 
^60 


360 

532 

379 
481 

61 

378 

454 

453 

535 
10,  64,  71 

421 


423 

434 

67 

3°4 
94 
4,  6,  117 

80 

85 


.  84 
107 
1 10 

23,  187 

421 

•     223 


Brake.      Lemoine  . 
Break.      Dealer's  . 
' '  Wagonette 

Breast -collar.     . 
Breeches.     . 
Breeching.  . 
Brewster  &  Co.     Plates 
XVII. ,  XVIII. 

Bridle 194 

Brighton     coach.       435,     465, 
466 
"  road. 

Britszka. 
Bronson.     . 
Brougham.  . 
Buckling   reins. 
Buggy.    .      .      . 
"        wheels. 


bugle. 


Buttons.      Club 

"  Livery 

Buxton  bit.  . 

Cadwalader.  . 
Calls  on  the  horn. 
Cantering  leader. 
Cape  cart.    . 

"  I  )riving- . 
Card.  Time-  . 
Care  of  coach. 

"        harness. 
Carriage-part.  . 
Catching  up  whip 
C -spring. 
Centre  of  gravity. 


229 


20 


o> 


43 1 
10 

486 

133 

270 

1 10 
48 
532 
426 
419 

365 

379 

531 
428 

"3 

424 

456 
126 

241 

!9 

403 

9 

*33 


INDEX 


569 


Centrifugal  force.  .      .      .  137 

Cernay-la-Ville  coach.      .  434 

Chain-end  trace.    .       218,  251 

"     trace 240 

Chains.      Pole-       54,   55,  233 
Chandos-Pole.      .      .      .432 

Change 459 

Chaplin 262 

Char  a  bancs 1 1 1 

Chart.      Time-        .      .      .  444 

Check-rein 207 

Chopping 335 

Circus  horse 143 

Clark 431 

Clarke 262 

Clipping 387 

Club  buttons 426 

Clubbing  reins.       .      .      .  334 

Clubs.      Coaching.       431,  510 

Coach 1 

"        and   Drag.      Dis- 
tinction between  16 

"         Care  of      .      .      .  126 

Cost  of      ...  128 

"        Development  of .  1 

' '        General     charac- 
ter of      .      .      .  16 

"        Height  of   49,  61,  120 
Name  of    .      .      11,12 

"        on  a  race-course.  516 

"        Weight  of       .      .  129 

Coaching  Club.   New  York  422, 

"          "       Meets.       .  512 

trips.   .      .  486 


Coaching  Clubs.     . 
Cost  of  . 


431*  5J° 

•     388 

432>  474 
425,  481 

533 


in  America 
in  England 
medals.  . 
Public    . 
Revival  of 
trips. 
Coachman's  dress. 
' '  duties 

Coat.      Box 
Cockade. 
Cock-eye.     . 
"     horse. 
"        "     harness 
Coefficient  of  axle  -  fric 
tion. 
"         of  rolling-fric 
tion. 

Collar 207 

"  Attachment      of 

trace  to     .      .     213 
"  Breast  or  Dutch      23, 

187 
"  Form  of 

Kay   . 
"          lining. 
Rim  . 
Collinge  axle.    . 
Colonial  coaching. 
Colours  of  coaches. 
Comparison  of  coaches. 
Competitions.     Driving 
Computation     of     resist- 
ance  161 


427 

432 
484 

452 
449 
423 
419 

219 
236 
236 

158 

J53 


208,  210 

.     208 

209 

.     208 

32 

5>  477 

75 
123 

527 


57o 


INDEX 


Concord  Coach.     .    4,  37,  116 

Coned  wheels 41 

Continental     methods    of 

driving 331 

Contractors.  Mail-  .  .482 
Corbett.     137,  262,  271,  298, 

322,  329,  414,  466,   469, 

472,  4S1 

CORDERY.      .       9,    125,    387,   413 

Cost  of  coach 128  I 

"       coaching.  .      .      .     388 

Coupling 263 

"         diagram.       270,  449 
"         reins.      .       225,  263 

Coventry 469 

Crab 53 

Cracknell 262  ! 

Crest 76,  196 

"     panel 76 

Cross 8,  71,  72 

Cross  team 384 

Crossing  traces.  .  .  .  253 
Croup  to  the  wall.  .  .  376 
Crown  of  street.  .  .  .  178 
Crown-piece.     .      .       196,  199 

Crupper 222 

Crushing  steel  balls.  .  .  160 
Curb-bit.      .      .      .       201,  361 

"     chain 204 

"    strap 205 


Daumont.     . 

Dealer.      London 

Dealer's  break. 

'  Defiance. '  . 

Demi-  Daumont. 

Dennet  spring. 

Development  of  the  coach 

Devices  on  panels. 

Devonport  mail.     . 

Diagram.      Backing-  . 
Bitting-     . 
"            Coupling- 
Seat-     . 
"            Speed - 
"            Turning- 
Dickey 

Diligence. 


Ghent 
Swiss 


Dip  of  axle. 
Dish  of  wheel. 
Docker.  . 
Docking. 
Dog-legged  wh 
Doors  of  boots 
Dorking  coach 
Double-thong. 
Down-hill. 
Drag.       . 
Dragsman. 
Drag-staff. 


Curricle I]t3      Draught. 

Curzon 274 

Cushion.        Driving-     67,  69, 

3°4 

Cycling  track 144 


P- 


orse 


Action  of  h 

in  . 
Angle  of 
Experiments  on 


237,  283 
366 
107 

463,  466 
284 

5° 

1 

76 
466 

34o 
270 
270 
488 
444 
340 
72 

7i 
10S 


455 


40 
40,  44 
412 
387 

392 

64 

434 
403 
320 
16,  102 
102 
89 
147 


181 

189 
162 


INDEX 


571 


Draught-eyes.    . 
Dress  of  coachman. 

"         guard. 

' '         servants, 
length  of 


Drives. 
Driving. 


•     213 

419.  452 

452 
418 

472 

285 

333 
345 

527 


Dupuit. 
Dutch  collar.     . 
Duties  of  servants 

D\VYER.    . 


American 

apparatus. 

competitions. 

cushion.  67,  69,  304 

General  obser- 
vations on    .     349 

Methods  of      .     330 

seat.  .  .67,  304 
.  .  148 
■  23,   187 

•      ■     4i5 
189,   362 


Edinburgh  coach.    8,  463,  466 

Elastic  trace 185 

Elbow  bit 202 

Eleven-and-four.     .      .      .  482 

Elliot 9 

Elliptic  spring.       .    9,  51,  107 

Evener 27 

Experiments  on  draught.  148, 

162 

Express  messenger.     .      .  469 

Falling.      Horse     .      .      .  502 

Fares 482 

Farm  wagon 2 

Fearing 486 

Fees 472 


FlESCHI 367 

Fifth  wheel 21 

FlLLIS 369,  37o 

Fingering 306 

Flexions.      .      .      .       369,  370 

Flower 263 

Flowers 195 

Fog 509 

Fontainebleau  coach.  .      .     435 

Foot-board 68 

"    boxes 74 

"    brake 85 

Force.      Centrifugal    .      .  137 

Four-and-eleven.    .      .      .482 

Four-in-hand  Club.     .      -431 

Four  -  in  -  hand     Club    of 

Philadelphia.        .      .  511 

French  harness  terms.       .  559 

"      loop  trace-ends.   .  217 

Friction.      Axle-    .            .  157 

"            Rolling-     .      .  147 

Fritsch 486 

Fronts 194 

Full  hand 330 

Futchell 3 

"           Hook  under     .  53 

Gag-runner 206 

Gaiters 420 

Galloping.  .  .  .  353,  441 
Game.  Road  .  .  .  .482 
Gammon-board.  ...  73 
Gather  of  axle.       ...       47 

Gauge 37 

German  bit 365 


572 


INDEX 


Getting  down 327 

"       up 285 

1  Glencairn.'  ....       26 
Gloves 4!9>  422 

GODDEN 532 

Grades.  .      .      .    167,  186,  357 

Grison 367 

Grooms 415 

"            getting    down.    358, 
416 
Guard's  dress 452 

"       duties.       .      .      .     449 
Guiet.      104,  468,  Plates  VII., 

XIX. 
Guildford    coach.       434,    454. 

457,  465 


380 


560, 


Hackney 

Haldemax. 

Half-penny.      Coaching 
Hame-strap. 

Hames 

Hammer-cloth. 
Hand  on  the  reins. 
"       Position  of  . 
Handling  horses.    . 
Hang  of  axle.  . 
Harness. 

"  Care  of 

"  racks.    . 

"  Spare  parts  of 

Harnessing 247 

Harris.      413,  446,  466,  473, 

481,  482,  499 
Hats.       .      .      .  41S,  420,  422 


533 
213 

21 1 

104 

296 

299 

366 

4° 
194 

241 

245 
240 


373'  377 
486 


432 

378 
180 

369 
199 

120, 


Haute  ecole. 
Havemeyer.     . 
Haworth.  . 

Hayes 

Haywood.  . 
Head.      Placing  the 
"  terrets. 


Height  of   coaches.      6r, 


125 

Herdic 28 

HlECKEL 468 

HlGGINS 467 

High-flyer 112 

"     school  riding.     368,  373, 

37  7 

Hip-straps 223 

Hitting  a  leader.    .      .      .  408 

"       a  wheeler.       .      .  408 

Hoare 432 

Hogarth 72 

Hold  and  hit 410 

Holding  four  horses.   .      .  292 

Holly  for  whips.     .      .      .  390 

Holyhead  road.     .           .  169 

Hook  under  futchells.       .  53 

Horn.      ...     93,  451,  531 

Horse.    Action  in  draught 

of     ....  181 

"        Attachment  of     .  187 

"        keepers.     .      .      .  447 

"        shoe  pads.       180,  502 

"        shows.       Judging 

at  .      .      .520 

Horses  for  coach    .      .      .  380 

"       to  the  mile.      .      .  436 


INDEX 


573 


Ladder. 
Lamps. 


not      carried      in 
daytime. 


92 
89 

91 


Hounds.       .      .      ■      .      .  2 

Howlett.     .      .      .      468,  560 

Howlett's  opposition.    .  316 

Hungarian  reins.    .      .      .  232 

Ice-skid 88,  507 

Imperial 95 

Inclination  of  road.    .      .  168 

Inclining  to  right  or  left.  306 

India-rubber  tires.       .    37,  151 

Jack 98 

Jaunting  car 112 

Jeantaud 28 

Jerome  Park 516 

Jibber 508 

Jouffret 333 

Judging  at  Horse  Shows.  520 

Kane.     ...      12,  433,  486 

Kay  collar 208 

Kennedy 473 

Kenyon 473 

Ker 236 

Key  Bugle 532 

Kicking  over  trace.     .      .  503 

"       strap 223 

Kidney-link 211 

King-bolt 2 

Knife-board 75 

Kohler 532 


Landau 133,  343 

Lapping  traces.      .      .      .  253 

La  Rousse 284 

Latchford.       .      .       361,  365 

Lazy-back 70 

Lead-bars 55 

"        Swiss.      .      .  58 

"       "        Three  horse .  59 

"     reins.  .      .      .        225,  230 

"       "        Ring  on  .      .  507 

Leaders.                          383,  385 

Leather 238 


Laurie  &:  Marner. 


66 


Lawrence 432 


Lemoine  brake. 
Length  of  drives.  . 
"         trace.    . 
Lennox.       .      .112, 
Lessons. 

Lettering  of  coach. 
License. 
Light  hand. 

"     mouth. 
Linchpin.     . 


186 

425 


LlNSLEY. 

Liveries. 
Liverpool  bit. 
Livery  buttons 
Lock. 

' '        Angle  of 
On  the 
London.      Coaching  in 
"  dealer  . 

LOWDEN 

LOYO 


37 


20 


84 
472 
191 
,  481 

349 
76 

471 

1  377 

37i 

31 

382 

418 

.  365 
419 

28 

-■>  ->  *n 
JJ  / 

22 

43 r 
366 

469 
379 


574 


INDEX 


LUQUE 

468 

Lunch -boxes 

94 

MacAdam 

170 

Macadam  road. 

170 

Macneill.  .      .129,  163, 

169 

Maidenhead  coach.     . 

457 

Mail  axle 

31 

"    coach 

102 

"    French      .... 

104 

"    Le 

13 

"    Model  of  .      .      .      . 

103 

"    phaeton.    .      .      no, 

133 

"    The  old    .... 

102 

Mails.      Parade  of  the 

103 

"          Right  of  way  of 

the      .      .      . 

499 

Maisons  -  Laffitte     coach. 

435, 

437,  465 

Malet.         7,  25,  58,  79, 

112, 

323>  481 

Ma  lie  poste 

104 

Marey 

i85 

Martingale 

214 

May  &  Jacobs. 

432 

Medals.      Coaching     . 

533 

Meets 

512 

Men.    Duties  and  Dress  of 

415 

Mexican  bit 

365 

Michelin.    .      .      .       152 

163 

Mileage 

482 

Monogram 76 

196 

Montigny 

33l 

Moping 

5°9 

Morgan  horse 

381 

MORIN.  104,    105,    148,    153, 

159,    162,    169,    189,    466 

Morning  suits 420 

Mountings 239 

Mouthing 369 

Moving  off.  .  .  .  -293 
Music 531 

Name  of  coach.  .  .  11,12 
Net.  Baggage  ...  17 
Newmarket  tug-bearer.  .  221 
New       York       Coaching 

Club.  .  .  422,  486,  510 
Nickel  plating.  .  .  -239 
'Nimrod.'       7,    25,    58,    102, 

129,  199,  224,    230,    239, 

271,  290,  298,   323,   463, 

466,  473 
Le  Noble  du  Teil.     .     .       26 
Nose-band 197 

d'Ocagne 13 

Oil 35,  i59 

!  Omnibus 113 

Opening  day 449 

Opposition 315 

Overturn.  .  .  .  135,  506 
Oxford  coach.   .  9,  125 

Pace 386 

"  Judgement  of      .     352 

Pad 219 

"     cloths 221 

Pads,  for  horses'  feet.  180,  502 
Painting  of  coach.       .      .        75 


INDEX 


575 


Palmer  mails.  . 
"       medal.  . 

Panels 

Paris.      Coaching  in 


102 

75 
438 


Parnell 129 

Patent  leather 238 

Pavement.      Asphalt    .      .  179 

"              Stone         169,  175 

"              Wood      .      .  179 

Pedler 26 

Pelham  bit.  .      .      .      .      .  364 

"      coach.       12,    77,    433, 

434,  465 

Perch 2,  19 

"     bolt 2 

Peters 65 

Peyton 431 

Phaeton.      High    .      .      .  112 

"            Mail     .        no,  133 
Philadelphia.    Coaching 
Club  trip 

to      .      .  486 
"           Fou  r -  i  n - 
Hand  Club 
Riding  Club 
1 1 


Philipson. 
Pipe. 

' '    clay. 

' '    collar 
Places  of  reins  in  hand 
Placing  the  head. 
Platform  springs. 
Plumb  spoke.     . 
Pneumatic  tires. 
Point.      .      .      . 


511 

379 
190 

238 

400 

210 

299 

369 

48 

40 

151 

3IO>  3T3 


Point. 


Pole. 


Howlett's 
on  whip.    . 


Breaking  a  . 


55. 


'OO' 


•  3l6 

395>  402 

•  51 

•  5°4 
249 

54 
53 
233 
251 
47i 
244 


"        chains. 

"        head. 

"        Length  of  . 

"        straps.     . 
Poling  up.     . 
Police  regulations. 
Polishing  steel. 
Pontoise  coach.  435,  458,  465, 
467 

Pony  express 469 

Position  on  the  box.     302,  304 

Postilions 278 

Posting 278 

"         French     .       107,  281 
"         harness.    .      .      -279 

Postmasters 280 

Procession  of  mails.  .  .  103 
Proportions  of  horses.  .  382 
Public  coaching.  427,  465,  470 
Pulling  horses.      241,  324,  509 


up. 


Punctuality  in  coaching.  . 
Putting   a   coach    on    the 
road.     . 
"       to 


Quiet  driving. 
Quill  of  whip. 


324 

470 

433 
249 

297 
390 


Rabbit-bitten  whip.     .  391 

Race-course.      .      .       359,  516 


576 


INDEX 


Rate  of  driving. 
Raw-hide.     . 
Red  coats.    . 
Rein.      Bearing  - 
"         billets. 
Side-     . 
Reins. 

"       Buckling 
"       Coupling- 
Hungarian 
Lead-     . 
Length  of 


•  386 

•  5°5 

•  453 
206,  256 

225,  267 

241 

224 

229,  270 

228,  230 

232,  476 

225,  230 

•      •     225 


170 

3°5 


on      tug-buckle. 

416 
Places  of,  in  hand 
Short  wheel-     . 
Wheel-   .... 


255> 

299 
229 

226 


Resilience 151 

Resistance  to  traction.      .     147 
Reunion  Road  Club.     79,  411, 

512 
Review  at  Meets.    .      .      .     514 
Revival.      Coaching    .  432 

Revnardson.      271,  413,  466, 

481 
Ribbons.       .      .      .       194,  195 

Riding  bits 360 

Club.        Philadel- 
phia .      .      .      .379 

Rim  collar 208 

Ring  on  lead-reins.      .      .     507 

Rives 486 

Road-coach 16 

"      coaching.     427,  465,  470 
"     game 482 


Road  making.    . 

"     On  the     .      .      . 

"     Rule  of  the  .      .  490 

"     surface 173 

"     ticket 534 

Rock 28 

Roller-bolt 22 

Rolling-friction.      .      .      .  147 

Roof-seats 72 

Rosettes 194 

Roup 298 

Rowlands! >n.   .                72,  237 

Rubber  tires 151 

Rugs 448 

Rule  of  the  Road.       .  490 

Rumble 69 

Running  away.        .      .      .  355 

Russet  leather.              .      .  238 

St.  Mal'r 383 

St.  Moritz  diligence.   .      -331 

Sailor-fashion 322 

Salute  with  the  whip.  .  414 

Scarf. 418 

'  Schoolmaster. '      The      .     366 

Seat-diagram.    .      .       45 5 ,  488 

"    on  the  box.     .       302,  304 

Selby's  drive.   .      .       467,  468 

Sergeant 378 

Servants.      Dress  of    .  418 

"  Duties  of  .      .     415 

Shanks.        .      .       Plate  XXII. 

Shaver 1-98 

Shelburne  Farms.  .      .      .487 
Shoe.      (See  Skid.)     .      .       85 


INDEX 


577 


Shooter 

Shooting  wheelers. 
Short  tommy 

"     wheel-rein.    . 
Shortening  reins.    .       320, 

Shoulder-in 

"        of  horse. 

Shrewsbury 

"  'Wonder.' 

469 
Shutters.     Stable-  .      .      . 

Side-rein 

Signals  in  the  street.    . 
Six  inside 

"  horses.    .      .    277,  336, 

Skeat 

Skid 

"        Ice- 

Sleigh 

Snaffle 205, 

"         Ring-  .... 
Soap  in  horse's  foot.    . 
South  American  bit.    . 
Spare  parts  of  harness. 
Speed.     .      .      .   444,  446, 

"        diagrams.    . 

Spike  team 

Splicing  thong. 

Splinter-bar 

Springs 

"  Effect     of,     on 

draught.     164, 
Spur.     Use  of  . 
Stable-shutters. 

"      tools 


481 
320 
412 
229 
322 

376 
188 
466 
62, 

255 
241 
496 

8 

474 

3 

85 
88 

"5 
360 

205 
5°3 

365 
240 

465 
444 

277 

401 

22 

48 


Stage 5 

"      waggon 5 

Stages.      Length  of     .      .     435 
Stamping  the  foot -board.     413 

Starting 289 

"        off  from  a   race- 
course.       359,  519 
Steadying  a  team.  .      .      .     319 
Steel.      Polishing  .       127,  244 
Stop  on  lead-rein.        .  230 

Stopping 324 

Stratton 1,  35 

Straw  in  boot 71 

Stretched.      Horse  stand- 
ing   388 

Strokes 44 

Sturgess.    ...       413,  499 

Subscribers 471 

Sue 284 

Swan  with  two  necks.        .     534 

Sway-bar 3,  21 

Swing  chain 278 

"      of  axle 40 

"      pair 277 

"      pole 278 

Swinging  of  coach.      .      .     167 

Swingle-tree 3,  23 

Swiss  coaching.       .        105,  331 


Tables,  of  coach.  ...  96 

"        Time-    ....  445 

166     Tailer 467 

372      Tails 387 

255     Taking  up  reins.     .      .      .  286 

447  !  Tallow  for  balling.       .      .  503 
37 


578 


INDEX 


Tally-ho. 
Tandem. 
Tantivy. 
Taper  axle -arm. 
Tattersall's. 
Telegraph  coaches 
"         springs. 
Telford  roads.   . 
Terret.      .    199,  2 

Ward's 
Thomson.    . 
Thong.      Double- 
Thorough-braces. 
Thorough-bred. 
Three  abreast.  . 
"     leaders.    . 
Throat-latch.     . 
"       latching. 
Thrupp. 
Thurston.  . 
Tiffany.      .  65,  2 
Time-bill.     . 
"    card.  . 
"     chart. 
• '    lost  in  chang 
"    table. 
Tipping  angle. 
Tire. 
' '        Pneumatic 
Rubber    . 
"        Width  of 
Tired  horses.     . 
Tokens.  . 
Tommy.      Short 
Tools  for  stable. 


o, 


12 

•  274 

14 

3L  34 

•  230 

•  1,  9 
.       48 

170 
226,  230 

■  232 

■  152 

•  403 
4,  6,  117 

380 

275 
276 

197 
5°9 


7° 


es. 


45 


32 
441,  466 

445 
456 
444 
446 

445 
135 

44 
J51 
L5* 
i49»  J54 

•  5°9 

•  533 
412 

•  447 


Tools  in  coach. 
Tops.      Boot 

Trace 

"         Angle  of  . 

Chain- 
"  Chain-end 

Elastic 
"  Kicking  over 

Lead-  . 
"  Length  of 

Wheel- 
Traces.      Crossing  . 
"  Lapping. 

Tractrix  curve. 
Transom. 


186 


98 
421 
217 
189 

240 

218 

185 

5°3 
219 

,  191 

217 

253 

253 

343 
2,  19 


Travelling-carriage.     .      .     107 

Trips.      Coaching  Club    .     486 

Private      .      .      .     484 

Trouville  drive.      .      .      .467 

Tug 189,  216 

Turning.       312,  319,  335,  337 

TUSTIN 298 

Tuxedo  coach.      435,  454,  465 


Unicorn  team.  . 
Uniform.      Club 
Up-hill.  .      .      . 
Upsetting.    . 
Use  of  the  whip. 


277 
426 

320 

506 

408 


Versailles  coach.     .      .      -435 
Vetturino.       58,  276,  331,  440 

Vidler 103 

Virginia  Water  coach.      .     434 


INDEX 


579 


Wagon 2 

Wagonette  break.  .      .      .  no 

Walker 333 

Ward.    ......  103 

Warde 7 

Ward's  terret.             .      .  232 

Washing  a  coach.   .      .      .  126 

Watch 453 

Waterhouse 533 

Water-proofs 10 1 

Waude 62 

Way-bill 458 

Webb 487 

1  ^O 


Weight.    Distribution  of 

"  of  coach, 

of  horses. 

"         of  vehicles.  . 
West.      Coaching  in  the 

Wetmore 486 

Wheel 38 


129 

382 

474 


.       48 
41 

■       39 
40,  44 

.       48 


Buggy      . 
Coned     . 
Cylindrical 
Dish  of    . 
Patent      . 

rein.'.      .      .      .     226 
"     Short.   .      .     229 
Size  of       39,  47,  120 
Wheelers.     .      .    383,  385,  386 

Whip 390 

"  American  .  .402 
"  Balance  of  .  .  397 
"         case 399 


•  403 

■  425 

•  39° 

•  392 

•  392 

■  398 
397,  399 

•  39° 

•  395 

•  4i4 
398 
401 

9 
390 
395 


►  Whip.      Catching  . 

Club.  .      . 
"  Crop  of    . 

"  Dog-legged 

"  Handle  of 

"         holder.      . 
"         Jointed     . 

quill.    .      . 
"  point. 

"  Salute  with    . 

"  Selecting  a    . 

' '  Splicing  thong  of 

"         spring. 

Stick  of    .      .      . 

Stiffness  of    . 

thong.  394,  400 

Use  of      ...     408 
White    Mountain    Coach- 
ing  474 

Whitley 469 

Width  of  tire.    .      45,  149,  154 

Williamson  &  De  Negri.  219 

Windsor  coach.       .      .      .  434 

Wings 2 

Winkers 195 

'Wonder.'        Shrewsbury  62, 

469 

Work  per  day  for  a  horse.  440 

Wright 103 

Wrist 301 


Yonkers  coach. 


434 


FINIS 


